 |
|
|
||||
| NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic Species |
Translate this page with 
Common Name: Eurasian water-milfoil
Taxonomy: available through 
Identification: A submersed, rooted, perennial herb. Consisting of long underwater stems that branch and produce many whorled, finely divided leaves upon nearing the surface. Distinguished from the native M. sibiricum primarily by the overall shape of the leaf and then by the number of leaflets. Leaves are divided in to threadlike leaflets, usually in pairs of more than 14 (Nichols 1975). Leaflets are uniformly tapered so that the leaf shape is more like an equilateral triangle with a curved base. Leaflets stand at acute angles (less than 45 degrees) to the rachis and are parallel to each other (Ceska 1985). Meanwhile, M. sibiricum has basal leaflets that are as long as the leaf. They curve over and extend almost to the top of the leaf, forming a more feathery shape. Aiken (1981) provides a detailed key for fertile specimens.
Native Range:
Europe, Asia, and northern Africa
| ||
 Alaska |
Hawaii |
Caribbean |
Interactive maps: Continental US, Alaska, Hawaii, Caribbean
Nonindigenous Occurrences:
Northeast - Expanding through northeastern New York, particularly into the Upper Hudson River-Albany region and into lakes in the foothills and mountains of the Adirondacks (Madsen 1994). Found in Vermont at 53 lakes, most concentrated in the western drainages, where Myriophyllum covers thousands of aquatic acres, including large bays in Lake Champlain and Lake Bomoseen (Crosson 2000). Eradicated from the interior of New Hampshire when a single site, Mountain Pond in Brookfield, was drained (R. Esterbrook, New Hampshire Dept. of Environmental Services, pers. comm. 1996); since found in the Connecticut River, bordering Vermont and New Hampshire, and under New Hampshire jurisdiction (Engel 1998). Locally abundant and aggresssive in Massachusetts and Connecticut (Crow and Hellquist 1983). Occurring in Rhode Island lakes and ponds (Sheath and Nerone 1988). Spreading rapidly through lakes and rivers in Pennsylvania, while the native M. sibiricum has been listed as endangered (Pennsylvania Flora Project 1998); established in the tidal regions of the Delaware River, where salt intrusion and industrial pollution are eliminating native submersed plants (Schuyler et al. 1993). Known from New Jersey's Upper Delaware drainage basin since its collection at Lake Musconetcong in 1952 (Schuyler 1989). Later reported from all major drainages in New Jersey, although most problematic in the state's northern lakes (Trudeau 1982). Newly observed in Delaware from a pond along the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal (C. Martin, Delaware Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, pers. comm. August 1997). Common in fresh to oligohaline waters of the Upper Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries in Maryland (Orth et al. 1996). Found in Maine at just two locations - a former gravel pit called Pleasant Hill Pond near Portland, and most recently (2008) in Salmon Lake at the head of the Belgrade Lakes system.
Southeast - Fluctuating in abundance for the past three decades in the Potomac River Estuary, Virginia (Carter and Rybicki 1994). Once dominating the shallow waters of Currituck Sound, North Carolina, until climatic factors and sediment suspension precipitated its decline in 1990 (Carter and Rybicki 1994). More recently covering 4000 acres in the Currituck and Albermarle Sounds; established inland at Lake Gaston and the adjoining Roanoke Rapids Lake, North Carolina (NCDWR 1996). Known since 1972 at only a few public lakes in South Carolina; currently noted at Lake Murray and at Stevens Creek reservoirs (S. deKozlowski, South Carolina Dept. of Natural Resources, pers. comm. 1997). Replaced by hydrilla following extensive 2,4-D treatment in Lake Seminole, Georgia (Bates and Smith 1994), however widespread throughout Georgia in private impoundments (G. Lewis, Univ. of Georgia, pers. comm. 1999). Often the dominant species in lower portions of the Apalachicola, Homosassa, Chassohowitzka and Crystal Rivers of Florida, where they meet the Gulf of Mexico (BAPM 1982-1994). The most abundant submersed species in bays and creeks of the Mobile River Delta, Alabama (Zolczynski and Shearer 1997); longstanding at freshwater reservoirs throughout the rest of the state (Bayne 1979). Observed along the Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway of northeastern Mississippi since 1987 (Kight 1988).
West of Appalachians - Documented in West Virginia (Harmon et al 1996). Declined, from four thousand to a few hundred acres in Kentucky Lake, Kentucky; large populations still exist at other impoundments throughout the state (B. Kenman, Kentucky Fish and Wildlife, pers. comm. 1996). Established, in shifting populations, through the Tennessee River system, Tennessee (Smith and Barko 1996). Initially introduced to that river at Watts Bar Reservoir in the 1950s (Couch and Nelson 1985). Spreading through the Cumberland River system in the late 1980s, possibly as the result of deliberate planting (Simpson 1990).
Great Lakes Region - Decreasing, while native species return, as nonindigenous mussels clear the once turbid waters of Put-in-Bay Harbor, Lake Erie, Ohio (Stuckey and Moore 1995). Reported from over 160 glacially-formed natural lakes in Indiana, 90 of which are located in the northern St. Joseph drainage (INDNR 1997). Also known in reservoirs across central Indiana (IDNR 1997), including Monroe Reservoir, where the species thrives in silt laden zones (Landers and Frey 1980). Declining in McCullom Lake, Illinois, in conjunction with the appearance of herbivorous Euhrychiopsis weevils (Weinberg 1995). Aggressive and long standing in nutrient rich, recreational lakes of southern Wisconsin, where infestations have occurred since the 1960s. It now foliates 54 counties and 319 waterbody sites (298 ponds, lakes and flowages) in Wisconsin - the most of any state (Engel 1999). Atypically occurring in bays of Lake Michigan; spreading northward through lakes in Michigan's lower peninsula (Nichols 1994; Trudeau 1982). Spreading rapidly since its 1987 arrival in Minnesota, Eurasian water-milfoil is know to occur in 75 lakes and 4 streams that radiate from the Twin Cites area (Bratager et al. 1996).
Great Plains - First found in North Dakota in 1996, where localized populations were discovered by students surveying the Sheyenne River at Valley City (B. Alexander, Valley City State Univ., pers. comm. 1997); not found there in 1997, following flooding and drawdown (Engel 1998). New to South Dakota, at Lake Sharpe, a 61,010 acre impoundment of the Missouri River, extending from Fort Thompson to Pierre, where a few small beds were found in August 1999 (D. Ode, South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks, pers. comm. 2000). Rare and of little concern in most of Nebraska; although noted as declining at Wildwood Lake, Lancaster County while increasing in Hord Lake, Merrick County (R. Kaul, Univ. of Nebraska, pers. comm. 1997; T. LeGrange, Nebraska Game and Parks, pers. comm. 1996). Reports are limited in Kansas (Couch and Nelson 1985). Long standing along the Kerr-McClellan waterway and in ponds and lakes of southern and central Oklahoma (Nelson and Couch 1985). Appearing at scattered sites since 1993 in Iowa, where nutrient loading, sedimentation and the maintenance of artificially high water levels have contributed to the absence of native vegetation. Currently established at Wilson Grove Lake and at Snyder Bend Lake, a shallow oxbow of the Missouri River (G. Phillips, Iowa Lakes Community College, and J. Wahl, Iowa Dept. of Natural Resources, pers. comm. 1997).
South Central - Collected since 1962, from eleven counties within 9 river drainages in Missouri (Padgett 2001); most problematic in the southcentral and southeastern portions of the state, especially at major recreational water bodies including Lake of the Ozarks (Whitley et al. 1990) and the upper Gasconade River (Padgett 2001). Tentatively identified in Arkansas from sterile (no flower) specimens collected at Lake Ouachita (herbarium specimen UARK 1997); also suspected to occur downstream in Lake Hamilton (M. Armstrong, Arkansas Dept. of Game and Fish, pers. comm. 1996). Found locally in lakes and bayous of western and southeastern Louisiana, more commonly occurring in fresh to brackish marshes and bays of the Mississippi Delta and the southern Coastal zone (Montz 1980; Chabreck and Condrey 1979). Established at reservoirs in eastern and central Texas; especially troublesome at Lake Austin, Pat Mayse Reservoir and Buescher State Park (Helton and Hartmann 1996).
Northwest - Recently confirmed (2007) in Montana's Noxon and Cabinet Gorge Reservoirs along the Clark Fork River (E. Ryce, MT Dept. of Fish, Wildlife &Parks). These findings are the first for the state, despite earlier reports in both Montana and Wyoming (Brewer and Parker 1990, Rabe and Chadde 1994). In both of these earlier cases, confusion with nomenclature probably resulted in misidentification of the native M. sibiricum.
During the warm summer of 1998, M. was discovered in Idaho at the Pend Oreille River, Hayden Lake, Spirit Lake and Eagle Island State Park (C. Holly and V. Mason, Idaho Dept. of Agric., pers. comm. 1998). Managed with triploid grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) in Devils Lake, Oregon (Bonar et al. 1993). Monitored at lakes across Washington and along the Columbia, Little Spokane, and Pend Orielle Rivers (Parsons 1996); replacing native vegetation in shallow lakes found east of Puget Sound, Washington (Walton 1996).
Wyoming is now the only state in the nation with no documented infestations.
Southwest - Reported for first time from Colorado during 1998 from the Rio Grande River as it passes through the southern town of Alamosa (F. Nibling, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, pers. comm. 1999); its presence in the Rio Grande has caused concern for regional irrigation systems. Previously reported at ponds and lakes in four counties of northern New Mexico (Martin and Hutchins 1981), however, new to Abiquiu and Cochiti Lakes, impoundments on the Rio Chama and the Rio Grande Rivers, New Mexico (Charles Ashton, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, pers. comm. 2000). More of a curiosity than a problem in the warm, arid climate of Arizona, where it occurs in a few ponds in the Colorado River Indian Tribe Reservation and in a small reservoir in the Verde Valley (E. Hall, Arizona Dept. of Agriculture, pers. comm. 1997). Known in Utah since 1993, at Fish Lake and Otter Creek Reservoir (UDWR 1993). First reported from Nevada, September 1995, from marinas along the northern shore of Lake Tahoe (Anderson and Ryan 1996). Uncommon in ditches and at lake margins in regions surrounding San Francisco Bay and San Joaquin Valley, California (Hickman 1993).
Ecology: Habitat: Lakes, ponds, shallow reservoirs and low energy areas of rivers and streams. Brackish water of protected tidal creeks and bays. Particularly troublesome in waterbodies that have experienced disturbances such as nutrient loading, intense plant management, or abundant motorboat use (Nichols 1994).
Plants typically grow in water depths of 1 to 4 m, but have been found growing in water as deep as 10 m (Aiken et al., 1979).
Able to form dense beds with stem densities in excess of 300/m2 in shallow water (Aiken et al 1979).
Means of Introduction: First documented in 1942 from a pond in Washington D.C., Eurasian water-milfoil was probably intentionally introduced to the United States (Couch and Nelson 1985). Spread occurred as the species was planted into lakes and streams across the country. Water currents disseminated vegetative propagules through drainage areas. Stem fragments are important for the colonization of new habitats while local colony expansion occurs mainly by stolons (Aiken et al. 1979; Madsen et al. 1988). Motorboat traffic contributes to natural seasonal fragmentation and the distribution of fragments throughout lakes. Transport on boating equipment plays the largest role in introducing fragments to new waterbodies. Road checks in Minnesota have found aquatic vegetation on 23% of all trailered watercraft inspected (Bratager 1996). Avoiding obstacles associated with plant identification, the transport of any aquatic vegetation is now illegal in Minnesota. Long distance dispersal has been linked to the aquarium and aquatic nursery trade (Reed, 1977)
Status: One of the most widely distributed of all nonindigenous aquatic plants; confirmed in 45 U.S. states, and in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec.
Impact of Introduction:
Now considered a major nuisance species throughout the Northeast, northern
Midwest and Pacific Northwest of the United States (Couch and Nelson, 1985,
White et al., 1993)
Eurasian water-milfoil competes aggressively to displace and reduce the diversity of native aquatic plants. It elongates from shoots initiated in the fall, beginning spring growth earlier than other aquatic plants. Tolerant of low water temperatures, it quickly grows to the surface, forming dense canopies that overtop and shade the surrounding vegetation (Madsen et al. 1991). Canopy formation and light reduction, are significant factors in the decline of native plant abundance and diversity observed when Eurasian water-milfoil invades healthy plant communities (Smith and Barko 1990; Madsen 1994).
Although in small tank experiments the native northern watermilfoil (Myriophyllum sibiricum Kom.) appears competitively superior, in the field, however, M. spicatum has replaced M. sibiricum over much of the temperate range of this species in North America (Valley and Newman, 1998). Both eelgrass (Vallisneria americana) and southern naiad (Najas guadalupensis) are known to have been displaced by this nonindigenous species in the Mobile Delta of Alabama (Bates and Smith 1994). Its establishment in Lake George, New York, reduced native plants from 5.5 to 2.2 species per square meter, in just two years (Madsen et al 1991).
Eurasian water-milfoil has less value as a food source for waterfowl than the native plants it replaces (Aiken et al. 1979). And although fish may initially experience a favorable edge effect, the characteristics of Eurasian water-milfoil's overabundant growth negate any short-term benefits it may provide fish in healthy waters. At high densities, its foliage supports a lower abundance and diversity of invertebrates, organisms that serve as fish food (Keast 1984). Dense cover allows high survival rates of young fish, however, larger predator fish lose foraging space and and are less efficient at obtaining their prey (Lillie and Budd 1992; Engel 1995). Madsen et al. (1995) found growth and vigor of a warm-water fishery reduced by dense Eurasian water-milfoil cover.
The growth and senescence of thick vegetation degrades water quality and depletes dissolved oxygen levels (Honnell 1992; Engel 1995). Typical dense beds restrict swimming, fishing and boating, clog water intakes and result in decaying mats that foul lakeside beaches.
Millions of dollars have been spent nationwide for control efforts (U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1993). In New York state alone, annual costs are estimated at $500,000.
Remarks:
The occurrence of sixteen species including Potamogeton illinoensis and Potamogeton pectinatus may be indicaters of conditions suitable for Eurasian water-milfoil invasion. Searching areas colonized by these species may provide early detection, the best method for preventing new invasion (Nichols and Buchan 1997).
Conventional control efforts have been unsuccessful in providing more than short-term relief.
A North American weevil, Euhrychiopsis lecontie, may be associated with natural declines at northern lakes (Sheldon 1994, Bratager et al. 1996, Weinberg 1995). Studies have found the herbivorous weevil to cause significant damage to Eurasian water-milfoil while having little impact on native species (Sheldon and Creed 1995), suggesting the insect as a potential biocontrol agent.
Since 1963, the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Cuvier and
Valenciennes), has been released to suppress Eurasian watermilfoil and other
nuisance aquatic plants in numerous sites within North America (Julien and
Griffiths, 1998). The most promising natural enemies meriting further investigation are the
naturalized pyralid moth Acentria ephemerella and the native weevil Euhrychiopsis
lecontei.
References
Aiken, S.G., P.R. Newroth and I. Wile. 1979. The biology of Canadian weeds. 34. Myriophyllum L. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 59:201-215.
Anderson, L.W. J. and F.J. Ryan. 1996. Eurasian watermilfoil in Lake Tahoe: a threat to a national treasure. Pp. 18-19 in Abstracts Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting of the Aquatic Plant Management Society, Inc. July 14-17 1996, Burlington, VT.
(BAPM) Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management. 1982-1994. Florida Aqautic Plant Management Surveys, electronic data. Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Tallahassee, Florida.
Bates, A.L., and C.S. Smith. 1994. Submersed plant invasions and declines in the Southeastern United States. Lake and Reservoir Management 10(1):53-55.
Bayne, D.R. 1979. The most troublesome aquatic weeds of Alabama. Proceedings of the Southern Weed Science Society 32:280-283.
Bode, J, S. Borman, S. Engel, D. Helsel, F. Koshere, and S. Nichols. 1993. Eurasian Water Milfoil in Wisconsin: A Report to the Legislature. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. 36 pp.
Bonar, S.A., G.L. Thomas, S.L. Thiesfeld, G.B. Pauley, and T.B. Stables. 1993. Effect of triploid grass carp on the aquatic macrophyte community of Devil's Lake, Oregon. North American Journal Fisheries Management. 13(4):757-765.
Bratager, M., W. Crowell, S. Enger, G. Montz, D. Perleberg, W.J. Rendall, L. Skinner, C.H. Welling and D. Wright. 1996. Harmful Exotic Species of Aquatic Plants and Wild Animals in Minnesota. Annual Report. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN. 99 pp.
Brewer, C., and M. Parker. 1990. Adaptations of macrophytes to life in moving water: upslope limits and mechanical properties of stems. Hydrobiologia 194:133-142.
Carpenter, S.R. and D.M. Lodge. 1986. Effects of submersed macrophytes on ecosystem process. Aquatic Botany 26:341-370.
Ceska, O. and A. Ceska. 1985. Myriophyllum Haloragaceae species in British Columbia: problems with identification. Pp. 39-50 in: L.W.J. Anderson [ed.] Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum and related Haloragaceae species. Aquatic Plant Management Society, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Chabreck, R.H., and R. E. Condrey. 1979. Common Vascular Plants of the Louisiana Marsh. Sea Grant Publication No. LSU-T-79-003. Louisiana State University Center for Wetland Resources, Baton Rouge, LA.
Cohen, A.N., and J.T. Carlton. 1995. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species In A United States Estuary: A Case Study Of The Biological Invasions Of The San Francisco Bay and Delta. A Report for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C.
Couch, R., and E. Nelson. 1985. Myriophyllum in North America. Pp. 8-18 in L.W.J. Anderson (ed.). First International Symposium Watermilfoil and Related Haloragaceae Species. 23-24 July 1985, Vancouver, B.C. Aquatic Plant Management Society, Vicksburg, MS.
Crosson, H. 2000. Vermont Aquatic Plant Survey. Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, Waterbury, VT.
Crow, G.E., and C.B. Hellquist. 1983. Aquatic Vascular Plants of New England: Part 6. Trapaceae, Haloragaceae, Hippuridaceae. New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH.
Cuvier and Valenciennes
Engel, S. 1999. Eurasian watermilfoil database. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Woodruff, Wisconsin.
Engel, S. 1995. Eurasian watermilfoil as a fishery management tool. Fisheries 20(3):20-27.
Harmon, P.J., J.T. Kartesz, C.M. Jessee, B.R. McDonald, and B.D. Sargent. 1996.
Checklist of the Wetland and Vascular Plants of West Virginia. The West Virginia Natural Heritage Program, West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, Elkins, WV. 74 pp.
Helton, R. J., and L. H. Hartmann. 1996. Statewide Aquatic Vegetation Survey Summary, 1995 Report. Statewide Freshwater Fisheries Monitoring and Management Program, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, TX.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Honnell, D., J.D. Madsen, and R.M. Smart. 1992. Effects of aquatic plants on water quality in pond ecosystems. Proceedings: 26th Annual Meeting, Aquatic Plant Control Research Program. Report A-92-2. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
(IDNR) Indiana Department of Natural Resources. 1997. Exotic Plant Species In Indiana Lakes. Lake and River Enhancement Program, Division of Soil Conservation, Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Indianapolis, IN.
Julien, M. H. and M.W. Griffiths. 1998. Biological Control of Weeds. A World Catalogue of Agents and Their Target Weeds, 4th Edition. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, United Kingdom.
Keast, A. 1984. The introduced aquatic macrophyte, Myriophyllum , as habitat for fish and their macroinvertebrate prey. Can. J. Zool. 62:1289-1303.Kight, J. 1988. Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway. Proceedings: 22nd Annual Meeting, Aquatic Plant Control Research Program. Report A-88-5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Landers, D.H. and D.G. Frey. 1980. The Dieback Role of Myriophyllum in Monroe Reservoir, Indiana. Technical Report No. 134, Office of Water Research Technology, U.S. Department of the Interior.
Lillie, R.A., and J. Budd. 1992. Habitat architecture of Myriophyllum L. as an index to habitat quality for fish and macroinvertebrates. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 7(2):113-125.
Madsen, J.D. 1994. Invasions and declines of submersed macrophytes in Lake George and other Adirondack lakes. Lake and Reservoir Management 10(1):19-23.
Madsen, J.D., L.W. Eichler, and C.W. Boylen. 1988. Vegetative spread of Eurasian watermilfoil in Lake George, New York. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 26:47-50.
Madsen, J.D., J.W. Sutherland, J.A. Bloomfield, L.W. Eichler, and C.W. Boylen. 1991. The decline of native vegetation under dense Eurasian watermilfoil canopies. J. Aquatic Plant Management 29:94-99.
Madsen, J.D., R.M. Smart, G.O. Dick, and D.R. Honnell. 1995. The influence of an exotic submersed aquatic plant, Myriophyllum , on water quality, vegetation, and fish populations of Kirk Pond, Oregon. Proceedings: 29th Annual Meeting, Aquatic Plant Control Research Program. US Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station.
Martin, W.C. and C. R. Hutchins. 1981. A Flora of New Mexico. Vol. 2. J. Cramer. pp. 1403-1405.
Montz, G. 1980. Distribution of selected aquatic plant species in Louisiana. The Proceedings of the Louisiana Academy of Sciences 43:119-138.
Nelson, E.N., and R.W. Couch. 1985. Aquatic Plants of Oklahoma I: Submersed, Floating-leaved and Selected Emergent Macrophytes. Oral Roberts University, Tulsa, OK.
NCDWR (North Carolina Division of Water Resources) 1996. Economic and Environmental Impacts of N.C. Aquatic Weed Infestations. Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources, NC.
Nichols, S. A. 1975. Identification and management of Eurasian Water Milfoil in Wisconsin. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 63:116-126.
Nichols, S. A. 1994. Evaluation of invasions and declines of submersed macrophytes for the Upper Great Lakes Region. Lake and Reservoir Management 10(1):29-33.
Nichols, S.A. and L.A. Buchan. 1997. Use of native macrophytes as indicators of suitable Eurasian watermilfoil habitat in Wisconsin lakes. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 35:21-24.
Orth, R.J., J.F. Nowak, G.F. Anderson, D.J. Wilcox, J.R. Whiting, and L.S. Nagey. 1996. Distribution of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation in the Chesapeake Bay and Tributaries and Chincoteague Bay - 1995. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Annapolis, MD.
Parsons, J.P. 1996. Aquatic Plant Technical Assistance Program: 1995 Activity Report. Washington State Department of Ecology, Environmental Investigations and Laboratory Services Program, Olympia, WA.
Padgett, D.J. 2001. Noteworthy collections and spread of exotic aquatics in Missouri. Castanea 66(3):303-306.
Pennsylvania Flora Project. 1998. http://www.upenn.edu/paflora. Botany Department, Morris Arboretum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.
Rabe, F.W., and S.W. Chadde. 1994. Classification of aquatic and semiaquatic wetland natural areas in Idaho and Western Montana. Natural Areas Journal 14:175-187.
Reed, C. F. 1977. History and distribution of Eurasian watermilfoil in the United States and Canada. Phytologia 36: 417-436.
Roley, S.S. and R.M. Newman. 2006. Developmental Performance of the Milfoil Weevil, Euhrychiopsis lecontei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), on Northern Watermilfoil, Eurasian Watermilfoil, and Hybrid (Northern × Eurasian) Watermilfoil. Environmental Entomology. 35(1): 121-126.
Sheath, R.G. and C.A. Nerone. 1988. Lake and Pond Littoral-Zone Macrophytes. Ch. 4 in: R.G. Sheath and M.M. Harlin [ed.] Freshwater and Marine Plants of Rhode Island. Kendall Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, IA.
Sheldon, S.P. 1994. Invasions and declines of submersed macrophytes in New England, with particular reference to Vermont Lakes and herbivorous invertebrates in New England. Lake and Reservoir Management 10(1):13-17.
Sheldon, S.P., and R. P. Creed. 1995. Use of a native insect as a biological control for an introduced weed. Ecological Applications 5(4):1122-1132.
Schuyler, A.E., S.B. Andersen, and V.J. Kolaga. 1993. Plant zonation changes in the tidal portion of the Delaware River. Proceedings of The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 144:263-266.
Schuyler, A.E. 1989. Submerged vascular plants in the Delaware River from the Delaware Water Gap to Trenton. Bartonia 55:53-58.
Smith, C.G., and J.W. Barko. 1990. Ecology of Eurasian Watermilfoil. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 28:55-64.
Smith, C.G., and Barko, J.W. 1996. Evaluation of a Myriophyllum decline in reservoirs of the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. Technical Report A-96-6, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Stuckey, R.L., and D. L. Moore. 1995. Return and increase in abundance of aquatic flowering plants in Put-In-Bay Harbor, Lake Erie, Ohio. Ohio Journal of Science 95(3):261-266.
Tamayo, M. and C.E. Grue. 2004. Developmental Performance of the Milfoil Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on Watermilfoils in Washington State. Environmental Entomology 33(4): 872-880.
Trudeau, P. 1982. Nuisance Aquatic Plants and Aquatic Plant Management Programs in the United States. Volume 3: Northeastern and North Central Region. MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA.
(UDWR) Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. 1993. More on Eurasian Watermilfoil. Utah Wildlife, Division of Wildlife Resources, Department of Natural Resources, UT. 3pp.
(UARK) University of Arkansas Herbarium, Fayetteville, AR.
U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment 1993. Harmful Non-Indigenous Species in the United States. OTA-F-565. Washington, D.C.
Walton, S.P. 1996. Aquatic Plant Mapping for 36 King County Lakes. King County Surface Water Management Division, Seattle, WA.
(WDNR) Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 1990. Environmental Assessment Aquatic Plant Management (NR 107) Program, WI. 213 pp.
White, D. J., E. Haber, and C. Keddy. 1993. Invasive Plants of Natural Habitats in Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
Whitley, J.R, B. Bassett, J. Dillard, and R. Haefner. 1990. Water Plants for Missouri Ponds. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, MO. 151 pp.
Zolczynski, J. and R. Shearer. 1997. Mobile Delta Submersed Aquatic Vegetation Survey, 1994. Fisheries Section, Game and Fish Division, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Spanish Fort, AL.
Other Resources:
Originally formatted NAS fact sheet (Dec 2003)
Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission Maps
NY Invasive Species Clearinghouse
Author: Colette C. Jacono and M.M. Richerson
Contributing Agencies: 
NOAA - GLERL
Revision Date: 10/15/2008 Citation for this information:
Colette C. Jacono and M.M. Richerson. 2009. Myriophyllum spicatum. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL.
<http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=237> Revision Date: 10/15/2008
| AccessibilityFOIAPrivacyPolicies and Notices | |
  |
|
