Prymnesium parvum
N.Carter
Common Name:
Golden algae
Synonyms and Other Names:
Identification:
Prymnesium parvum is a microscopic, single-celled algae with four morphologically distinct forms (Larsen 1998). Three of the forms are scaled, bi-flagellated, and have a flexible, non-coiling, needle-like filament called a haptonema. The fourth form is a scaled, non-motile, siliceous cyst (Manton 1966; Genitsaris et al. 2009). The scales are found in two layers: inner scales have narrow, inflexed rims, and outer scales have wide, inflexed rims (Green et al. 1982). Two of the flagellated forms are haploid, and are described as two separate forms: P. parvum f. patelliform and P. parvum f. parvum. Both have two layers of scales but ornamentation differs between forms when viewed with a transmission electron microscope (Larsen 1999, Johnsen et al. 2010). The cyst and third flagellated forms are both diploid. All forms contain two, yellow-green, saddle-shaped chloroplasts in the front of the cell near the flagella (Holdway et al. 1978). Flagella are 10 to 14.5 μm long and the haptonema is 3 to 5 μm long. Body scales are 0.3 μm long. Cysts are ovoid, 9.3 to 10.8 μm long and 6 to 6.4 μm wide and have a sub-anterior pore 2.75 to 3 μm in diameter (Green et. al 1982).
Size:
Cells are 6 to 12 µm long and 3.5 to 8 µm wide
Native Range:
Unknown, but P. parvum is ubiquitous worldwide in temperate zones and was first documented in the eastern hemisphere in the early 1900s (Liebert and Deerns 1920). The first confirmed P. parvum bloom in North America was in 1985 in Texas on the Pecos River (James and De La Cruz 1989).
Great Lakes Nonindigenous Occurrences:
Blooms of P. parvum have been recorded in 23 U.S. states: Maine, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, Nevada, California, Washington, and Texas (Roelke et al. 2016).
Ecology:
Prymnesium parvum inhabits a variety of waterbodies including rivers, lakes, estuaries, fjords, coastal oceans, and ponds, including eutrophic, alkaline, and brackish waters (Granéli et al. 2012). Under optimal conditions, P. parvum can reproduce rapidly and form a nearly monocultural bloom by releasing toxins into the water that immobilize or kill zooplankton and other phytoplankton to increase available food sources. It can survive in a range of water temperatures, from 5°C to 35°C, with blooms increasing between 10°C to 27°C (Larsen et al. 1998; Baker et al. 2007; Grover et al. 2007). P. parvum can live in near-freshwater to marine conditions, from 0.5 practical salinity units (psu) to 45 psu, (Larsen et al. 1993; Larsen et al. 1998; Baker et al. 2007) with optimum growth between 7 to 22 psu (Baker et al. 2007; Weissbach and Legrand 2012; Rashel and Patino 2017). Roelke et al. (2016) hypothesized that P. parvum bloom formation is most common when cells are in intermediate salinity and under moderate environmental stress because allelopathic and toxic chemical production is too low in low salinity/high stress and vice versa. The opposite trend is seen for nutrient concentrations, where P. parvum growth and toxicity is minimal when nitrogen and phosphorus ratios are balanced, and increase as the environment becomes more deficient in one of the nutrients (Granéli and Johansson 2003a,b; Granéli et al. 2012), particularly phosphorus (Granéli and Johansson 2003b; Uronen et al. 2005; Hambright et al. 2014). Toxicity was also consistently higher in pH of 8.5 compared to 6.5 and 7.5 (Valenti et al. 2010).
Prymnesium parvum has a sexual haploid-diploid life cycle with four forms, 3 motile and one resting cyst form that may serve to reseed populations following unfavorable conditions (Garcés et al. 2001; Granéli et al. 2012). It’s growth rate ranges from 0.3 to 1.15 cell divisions per day via mitosis, increasing as environmental conditions become more favorable (Larsen et al. 1998). It is mixotrophic, supporting its growth with autotrophy (photosynthesis) or heterotrophy if nutrients are scarce (typically during a bloom event) (Fistarol et al. 2003; Tillmann 2003; Granéli and Johansson, 2003a). During a P. parvum bloom when toxin concentrations are high enough to lyse the cells of zooplankton and other phytoplankton, P. parvum can consume them by phagotrophy and absorb the recently released dissolved organic material by saprophy, effectively resisting potential inorganic nutrient limitation from their rapid growth (Granéli et al. 2012; Roelke et al. 2016). As competition is reduced, P. parvum blooms can grow and begin to produce toxin concentrations capable of killing larger organisms, including fish and invertebrates (Ultizer and Shilo 1966; Ulitzer 1973; Granéli et al. 2012; Svendsen et al. 2018). A few grazers, including some ciliates, rotifers, and dinoflagellates, do consume P. parvum but only when it is not in bloom or producing toxins (Tillman 2003; Rosetta and McManus 2003; Schwierzke et al. 2010).
Means of Introduction:
Vectors are thought to be ballast water and global trade of aquaculture (Hallegraeff and Gollasch 2006), and local dispersal is attributed to transportation by birds, wind, and anthropogenic movement (drilling equipment, water tankers, and recreational boats) (Kristiansen 1996; Renner 2009).
Great Lakes Impacts:
Summary of species impacts derived from literature review. Click on an icon to find out more...
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Prymnesium parvum has the potential for high environmental impact if introduced to the Great Lakes. Blooms of P. parvum are capable of producing concentrations of chemicals that can suppress the growth or kill competing phytoplankton and predatory zooplankton (e.g. Harpacticus sp. and Daphnia magna) (Fistarol et al. 2003, 2005; Granéli and Johansson 2003a; Roelke et al. 2007; Errera et al, 2008; Brooks et al. 2010). Zooplankton abundance was decreased within 48 hours of exposure to P. parvum and community composition was shifted to be copepod dominated which may have substantial food web consequences (Witt et al. 2019). Presence of P. parvum increases carbon transfer through the microbial loop which boosts dissolved organic carbon and bacterial biomass - which are food sources for P. parvum (Uronen et al. 2007). P. parvum also produces a wide range of ichthyotoxic compounds, including prynmnesens (Igarashi et al. 1996, 1999; Rasumussen et al. 2016), fatty acids (Henrikson et al. 2010), and fatty acid amides (Bertin et al. 2012a,b), which damage gill membranes in fish, tadpoles, bivalves, and crayfish (Ultizer and Shilo 1966; Ulitzer 1973; Granéli et al. 2012; Svendsen et al. 2018) and have hemolytic and anticoagulant effects (Binford et al. 1973; Doig and Martin 1973; Schug et al. 2010; Skingel et al. 2010). Mortality likely occurs once sufficient gill tissue is destroyed (Ulitzur and Shilo 1966; Remmel and Hambright 2012). At least 153 fish kill events impacting eight native species due to P. parvum have been recorded in Texas between 1981-2008 (Southard et al. 2010). Dunkard Creek in Pennsylvania also experienced a major fish kill following a spike in salinity from the release of mining waste, with P. parvum wiping out 18 fish and 14 freshwater mussel species (Renner 2009). Sustained declines of the relative size and/or abundance of nine fish species in recently depleted reservoirs of the Upper Colorado and Brazos Rivers were attributed to toxic P. parvum blooms in 2001 (VanLandeghem et al. 2013). Both the Dunkard Creek and Colorado and Brazos River P. parvum blooms occurred in typically freshwater systems that would not support toxin production, however, its cysts can lie dormant and bloom without warning once favorable conditions occur (e.g. salinity levels) (Genitsaris et al. 2009).
Presence of P. parvum compounds the mortality effects of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus by 50% in Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout) when compared to the virus alone (Andersen et al. 2016).
Prymnesium parvum has the potential for high socioeconomic impact if introduced to the Great Lakes.
Fish kills from P. parvum toxicity is a major source of economic impact. As of 2010, P. parvum was responsible for the death of over 34 million fish in 33 waterbodies in Texas with an estimated value of US$13 million. Numerous Texas sport fisheries have also been severely affected, and economic losses in three counties surrounding an infested lake over two years were estimated at US$3.9 million (Southard et al., 2010). Further, infested lakes are unsightly and can be toxic to humans and can reduce recreation, tourism, and fishing (Glass 2003). Management and control are also very costly, especially in large water bodies (Roelke et al. 2016).
There is little or no evidence to support that Prymnesium parvum has the potential for significant beneficial impacts if introduced to the Great Lakes.
P. parvum cells have a high lipid content and may be useful in the production of biofuel (Ng et al. 2015).
Remarks:
A genetic analysis of U.S. P. parvum strains from northern and southern states revealed that their DNA sequences were more similar to various European strains than to each other, indicating that invasions may have been independent and relatively recent (Lutz-Carrillo et al. 2010).
References
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Author:
Bartos, A., and C.R. Morningstar
Contributing Agencies:
Revision Date:
1/27/2022
Citation for this information:
Bartos, A., and C.R. Morningstar, 2024, Prymnesium parvum N.Carter: U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL, and NOAA Great Lakes Aquatic Nonindigenous Species Information System, Ann Arbor, MI, https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/GreatLakes/FactSheet.aspx?Species_ID=3234, Revision Date: 1/27/2022, Access Date: 9/14/2024
This information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information has not received final approval by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and is provided on the condition that neither the USGS nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.