Apollonia melanostoma (Pallas, 1814), Apollonia melanostomus (Pallas, 1814); see Stepien and Tumeo (2006) for name change, and Stepien and Neilson (2013) for clarification on taxonomy and nomenclature.

Round Goby was considered extremely abundant in the St. Clair River in 1994. Short trawls made in Lake Erie in October 1994 turned up 200 individuals. Frequent trawling in 1995 collected over 3,000 individuals near Fairport Harbor, Ohio (Knight, personal communication). Densities in Calumet Harbor exceed 20 per square meter (Marsden and Jude 1995). Gravid females and different size classes have been found in Lake Erie (T. Cavender, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, personal communication). In Lake Superior, primarily established in Duluth-Superior Harbor and lower St. Louis River, and absent from the remainder of the western portion of the lake (Bergstrom et al., 2008)

Realized:
The numbers of native fish species have declined in areas where the Round Goby has become abundant (Crossman et al. 1992). In laboratory experiments, this species has been found to prey on darters and other small fishes, as well as Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) eggs and fry. It may feed on eggs and fry of sculpin (Cottus spp.), darters, and Logperch (Percina caprodes) (Marsden and Jude 1995) and has also been found to have a significant overlap in diet preference with many native fish species. It competes with Rainbow Darter (Etheostoma caeruleum), Logperch, and the endangered Northern Madtom (Noturus stigmosus) for small macroinvertebrates (French and Jude 2001).

In a study of Lake Erie tributaries in New York, caddisflies and mayflies were more abundant and more taxonomically diverse, respectively, in streams without Round Goby, indicating that the gobies’ consumptive behavior has had an impact on invertebrate communities in this area (Krakowiak and Pennuto 2008). As the Round Goby expanded and established its range in Green Bay, Lake Michigan (2003-2006), reduction in populations of zebra mussel, quagga mussel, isopods, amphipods, trichopterans, and gastropods were observed (Lederer et al. 2006).

Shelters inhabited by Round Goby are similar to those of Logperch and, in experiments, Round Goby was a more aggressive and successful competitor for this limited space, regardless of which species had prior residence of the habitat (Balshine et al. 2005).

Mottled Sculpin (Cottus bairdii) has been particularly affected since the establishment of N. melanostomus (Marsden and Jude 1995). This is almost certainly due to competition from large Round Goby (greater than 100 mm) for spawning sites, from medium Round Goby (60-100 mm) for space, and from small Round Goby (less than 60 mm) for food (Janssen and Jude 2001). Janssen and Jude (2001) argued that the main cause of the dramatic decline in the native Mottled Sculpin population is due to nesting interference with Round Goby; the other competition factors have a less severe impact, though they acknowledge the need for further research on food competition. Adult Round Gobies aggressively defend spawning sites and occupy prime spawning areas, keeping natives out (Dubs and Corkum 1996, Marsden and Jude 1995). In Calumet Harbor, there has been an absence of Mottled Sculpin nests and age-0 fish since 1994, coinciding with N. melanostomus establishment (Janssen and Jude 2001). Neogobius melanostomus and C. bairdii both take daytime refuge from predators under rocks, emerging to feed nocturnally (Dubs and Corkum 1996). This space competition could displace C. bairdii into deeper and unprotected spaces where they can easily be predated. Competition for food between N. melanostomus and C. bairdii occurs most heavily when they are young (less than 60 mm). This is due to the overlap of an arthropod diet at this age (Janessen and Jude 2001).

Laboratory experiments have shown that the more aggressive N. melanostomus will evict C. bairdii from rock shelters that are being used for spawning or daytime predator evasion (Dubs and Corkum 1996). In trials where round goby was introduced into tanks with Mottled Sculpin residents, the gobies approached and chased the resident sculpin (Dubs and Corkum 1996). When sculpin was released into resident Round Goby tanks, the sculpin were chased and bitten (Dubs and Corkum 1996). Sculpin did not exhibit any aggressive behavior towards the Round Goby in any scenario (Dubs and Corkum 1996).

Although Round Goby has become a food source for some native species, some negative offsets exist. It is widely speculated that Round Goby, via predation on zebra mussel, likely has the ability to facilitate the bioaccumulation of contaminants up the food chain to benthic-oriented piscivores that feed on Round Goby, although experimental results with various contaminants vary (Hogan et al. 2007; Morrison et al. 2000; Ng et al. 2008). Furthermore, Round Goby is an inferior prey for other forage fish in terms of conferred energy (3.2 kJ/g compared to 5 kJ/g average for clupeids, Rainbow Smelt (Osmerus mordax), and shiners; Johnson et al. 2005).

Neogobius melanostomus introductions may also be a vector for the spread of avian botulism. The change in behavior of infected N. melanostomus may make it a preferred prey item for piscivorous birds (Yule et al. 2006). In Lake Erie, botulism infected birds had been feeding more on Round Goby compared to uninfected birds (Corkum et al. 2004).

Potential:
Round Goby may be a significant concern for threatened or endangered species. In particular, Round Goby currently occupies the Thames and Sydenham rivers in Ontario, two sites with some of the highest diversities of at-risk aquatic species in Canada (Poos et al. 2010). Poos et al. (2010) analyzed the known and suspected impacts of Round Goby invasion on 19 small benthic fishes and 36 mussels found in Canadian tributaries based on the previous literature. They determined that 17 of 19 fishes are known or suspected to have been impacted by competition with or predation by Round Goby, including the endangered Northern Madtom (Notorus stigmosus) and the threatened Eastern Sand Darter (Ammocrypta pellucida). Furthermore, 6 of 36 freshwater mussel species are suspected to be indirectly impacted by Round Goby invasion, 5 of which have conservation status in Canada or globally. These potential indirect impacts are attributed to the dependence of native mussels on host fishes which may be directly impacted by Round Goby invasion (Poos et al. 2010).

There is also the potential for the Round Goby to become more widely distributed in inshore habitats—especially those with plant cover—of the lower Great Lakes, as evidenced around the inshore areas of the Black and Caspian seas; however, in winter this species can migrate to depths of 50–60 m (Jude et al. 1992).

Neogobius melanostomus has a high socio-economic impact in the Great Lakes.

Realized:
The invasion of Round Goby into Lake Erie has had very real environmental and economic impacts. The State of Ohio has shut down the Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu) fishery in Lake Erie during the months of May and June because high predation rates on nests are affecting smallmouth recruitment. Under normal circumstances, male Smallmouth Bass guard nests and are effective in keeping Round Goby away. When males are removed, the Round Goby immediately invades and has been shown to eat up to 4,000 eggs within 15 minutes. The months of May and June normally account for 50 percent of the total smallmouth catch in Lake Erie, so there will be a considerable loss in funds generated by recreational fishers (National Invasive Species Council 2004).

One study of Smallmouth Bass fishing in the Niagara River did not detect any negative correlation between Round Goby catch rate and Smallmouth Bass catch rate; however, it was a 1-year study and thus lacked the scope needed for comparative analysis over time (Dunning et al. 2006). Interestingly, it was noted in this survey-based study that Round Goby catches led to a perception of poor fishing quality and frustration among anglers (Dunning et al. 2006).

Walleye (Sander vitreus) anglers in Detroit report that, at times, all they can catch are gobies, which eagerly attack bait (Marsden and Jude 1995).

There is little or no evidence to support that Neogobius melanostomus has significant beneficial effects in the Great Lakes.

Realized:
The diet of larger Round Goby consists mainly of zebra mussel, which no other fish species of the Great Lakes consumes so heavily, meaning that a significant gap in the food web is lessened (Vanderploeg et al. 2002; Johnson et al. 2005). Round Goby appeared to make up approximately 75% of Burbot (Lota lota) and Smallmouth Bass diet in Lake Erie and 36% of Lake Trout diet in Lake Ontario, indicating that a new energy source may be travelling up the food chain (Dietrich et al. 2006, Johnson et al. 2005). Round Goby also supplements the diet of Yellow Perch (Weber et al. 2011).

However, many of these positive impacts are offset due to reciprocated predation by Round Goby on larval piscivores, potential contaminant magnification up the food chain, and the diminished energy source provided by Round Goby prey (see negative environmental impacts). Furthermore, while zebra mussel predation allows Round Goby to uniquely exploit a resource, which could fuel a population explosion, Round Goby predation was estimated to impact only about 1% of the dreissenid population in Lake Erie (Johnson 2005, Vanderploeg et al. 2002).

Note: Check federal, state/provincial, and local regulations for the most up-to-date information.
 

Control
Biological
Although many other species consume Round Goby, no effective and species-specific biocontrol has been identified. Among other species, native Burbot are being investigated for their potential to control goby populations (Madenjian et al. 2011).

Physical

Chemical
The IJC (2011) recommends rotenone for control of Round Goby in rapid response scenarios. Of the four chemical piscicides registered for use in the United States, antimycin A and rotenone are considered “general” piscicides, but no studies have been found of their effects on Neogobius melanostomus (GLMRIS 2012).

Increasing CO₂ concentrations, either by bubbling pressurized gas directly into water or by the addition of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) has been used to sedate fish with minimal residual toxicity, and is a potential method of harvesting fish for removal, though maintaining adequate CO₂ concentrations may be difficult in large/natural water bodies (Clearwater et al. 2008). CO₂ is approved only for use as an anesthetic for cold, cool, and warm water fishes the US, not for use as euthanasia, and exposure to NaHCO₃ concentration of 142-642 mg/L for 5 min. is sufficient to anaesthetize most fish (Clearwater et al. 2008).

It should be noted that chemical treatment will often lead to non-target kills, and so all options for management of a species should be adequately studied before a decision is made to use piscicides or other chemicals. Potential effects on non-target plants and organisms, including macroinvertebrates and other fishes, should always be deliberately evaluated and analyzed. The effects of combinations of management chemicals and other toxicants, whether intentional or unintentional, should be understood prior to chemical treatment. Other non-selective alterations of water quality, such as reducing dissolved oxygen levels or altering pH, could also have a deleterious impact on native fish, invertebrates, and other fauna or flora, and their potential harmful effects should therefore be evaluated thoroughly.

Other
Electrical barriers may be successful at limiting the movement of Round Gobies. In tank studies, Round Gobies did not move through such a barrier (Savino et al. 2001).

Rollo et al. (2007) reported Round Gobies will approach a speaker emitting conspecific male calls in the field, and female Round Gobies showed significant attractions to speakers emitting conspecific male calls in the laboratory. Therefore Round Goby phonotaxis could be used to lure gravid females to traps. As Round Gobies will spawn multiple times throughout late spring and summer, they should remain receptive to male calls and bioacoustic capture for the entire breeding season.

Ochs et al. (2013) found no response to putative Round Goby pheromones by several syntopic Great Lakes native centrarchids and percids, indicating the potential for pheromone trapping as a viable control method.

Note: Check state/provincial and local regulations for the most up-to-date information regarding permits for control methods. Follow all label instructions.

Pettitt-Wade et al. (2015) examined trophic niche breadth, plasticity, and overlap between Round and Tubenose gobies in Lakes Superior and St. Clair using stable isotope analysis. They found a higher isotopic trophic position and generally higher isotopic nichc breadth and plasticity in Round Goby, with little overlap between size-matched Round and Tubenose gobies, and suggested that this increased isotopic niche breadth and plasticity has assisted in the establishement success of Round Goby in the Great Lakes (widely abundant and distributed vs. low abundance and localized distribution of tubenose goby).

The Round Goby's aggressive nature may allow individuals to dominate prime spawning sites, making these sites unavailable to natives. There is a long spawning period during which individuals can spawn every 20 days, while they aggressively defend their nests (Jude et al. 1992). Although early researchers expected introduced round gobies to be restricted to near-shore rocky or weedy habitats, the species has since been captured at depths as great as 21.5 m (T. Cavender, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, personal communication). Divers have found an unusual characteristic of N. melanostomus. When divers overturn rocks to expose Round Gobies in their daytime shelters, more gobies come to the site to feed on exposed prey but also to observe the divers (Janssen and Jude 2001). Yet if a predator approaches, such as a Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu) or a Rock Bass (Amploplites rupestris), the gobies will seek shelter (Janssen and Jude 2001).

Although the species exhibits two pigmentation morphs and investigations were planned to determine whether more than one introduction of Neogobius occurred in the Great Lakes (T. Cavender, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, personal communication), only N. melanostomus has been observed.

Introduced populations of Round Goby in the Great Lakes show reduced diversity and numbers of parasites compared to populations from its native range as well as to native Great Lakes fishes, providing some support for the 'enemy release hypothesis' for invasion success (Kvach and Stepien 2008; Gendron et al. 2012). However, Gendron et al. (2012) found that gobies from Lake St. Clair (one of the earliest introduced populations) showed an increase in parasite diversity and density over time.

Round Goby has been shown to exhibit phenotypic plasticity in some life history characteristics, such as reproductive traits like number and size of mature oocytes, and this plasticity has been suggested to enhance establishment success at invasion fronts (Hôrková and Kovác 2015). Phenotypic plasticity has also been shown in Round Goby to maintain or regain homeostasis after rapid temperature changes, thus increasing its invasion success (Wellband and Heath 2017).

Coulter et al. (2015) examined the influence of various habitat characteristics (e.g., wetlands vs open water, productivity, zooplankton and fish community diversity) on the abundance of Round Goby at several sites in Lakes Michigan and Huron, finding that catch per unit effort was generally related to biological productivity but the direction and strength of the relationship varied across sites.

Adrian-Kalchhauser et al. (2017) suggest that there is no direct evidence for the direct attachment of egg clutches by Round Goby to aquatic vessels, a commonly suggested introduction vector for Ponto-Caspian gobiids, and that this concept should be treated as an untested hypothesis.

Round Goby is one of the most frequently found prey items in the diet of the Double-Crested Cormorant in the southern basin of Lake Michigan (Madura and Jones 2016).

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