Lophipus carteri, Pectinatella carteri

L. carteri colonies are globular, lobate, and yellowish in color. They are usually not greater than 1.5 cm in diameter (Ricciardi and Reiswig 1994). The highest density of colonies was found to be 65 colonies/m2 by Ricciardi and Lewis (1991). Polypide number ranges from 20 to 70 per colony, and each polypide ranges from 1.08 mm to 1.52 mm (Bushnell 1965).

L. carteri statoblasts are identified by their spines with serrated edges which are confined to the margins at the poles; overall, the  statoblast is saddle-shaped and broadly oval in outline (Ricciardi and Reiswig, 1994)

L. carteri prefer shallow alkaline waters and solid substrates; they experience the highest growth rate between 15 and 28 degrees Celsius (Walker et al., 2013).  They are able to survive temperatures between 4 and 32 C and pH between 7.4-9.4 (Ricciardi and Reiswig, 1994).

Bushnell (1965) found L. carteri in a waterfowl sanctuary and noted the strong possibility of statoblasts to be spread by waterfowl. Statoblasts have been found on the feet and bills of waterfowl, and have been known to remain viable after passing through the digestive tract of a mallard (Bushnell 1965).

Summary of species impacts derived from literature review. Click on an icon to find out more...

Environmental	Socioeconomic	Beneficial

Potential:
The ecological impact of L. carteri has not yet been thoroughly investigated. The coelomic fluid of L. carteri can potentially kill fish and salamanders by damaging gill tissue (Ricciardi and Reiswig 2004). However, coelomic fluid was only reported to have a significant harmful effect in confined areas (e.g. inside a bait bucket) (Tenney and Woolcott,  1964; Collins et al., 1966)

Current research on the socio-economic impact of Lophopodella carteri in the Great Lakes is inadequate to support proper assessment.

Potential:
Bryozoans, in general, can easily become an economic nuisance by fouling boating and recreational equipment, aquaculture infrastructure, and water intake systems (Ricciardi and Reiswig 1994).

There is little evidence to support that Lophopodella carteri has significant beneficial effects in the Great Lakes.

Potential:
Lauer et al. (1999) found that L. carteri colonies inhibit zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) from settling. Lophopodella carteri also readily forms dense colonies on mollusk shells (Lauer et al. 1999, Ricciardi and Reiswig 1994), against which zebra mussels appear to have no defense (Lauer et al. 1999). Lauer et al. (1999) suggested three ways in which L. carteri could prevent recruitment of D. polymorpha: (1) the current produced by bryozoans’ lophophore cilia (used for food selection, waste rejection) may physically prevent D. polymorpha larvae from settling; (2) the cover produced by L. carteri colonies may cause D. polymorpha larvae to seek alternate substrates; and (3) the coelomic fluid of L. carteri fluid may have a detrimental effect on D. polymorpha larvae. However, the lower four Great Lakes have large, well established populations of Dreissena that are unlikely to be controlled significantly by these effects.

Note: Check federal, state/provincial, and local regulations for the most up-to-date information.

Control
Biological
There are no known biological control methods for this species.

Physical
Lophopodella carteri colonies grow on solid substrata (Lauer et al. 1999), therefore, physical removal methods such as scraping may be viable for localized areas.

Chemical
Chemical biocides have been used as anti-fouling agents to remove sessile macroinvertebrates from shipping equipment and industrial intakes, but none have been approved for use on bryozoans as of yet (United States 2011). The Great Lakes and Mississippi River Interbasin Study (GLMRIS 2012) suggests that alteration of water quality using carbon dioxide, ozone, nitrogen, and/or sodium thiosulfate could be effective in preventing upstream and downstream movement of bryozoans.

Pardue and Wood (1980) determined baseline toxicity of four heavy metals to three species of phylactolaemate bryozoa (L. carteri, Pectinatella magnifica Leidy, and Plumatella emarginata Oka). They recorded 96-hr LC50 values (lethal concentration for 50 percent of organisms tested) of L. carteri, observing greatest sensitivity to cadmium (LC50 0.15 mg/L), followed by copper (LC50 0.51 mg/L), chromium (LC50 1.56 mg/L), and zinc (LC50 5.63 mg/L). It should be noted that the toxicity of these metals were not tested as control measures, but as a demonstration of the usefulness of some bryozoans as biomonitors of water quality. However, comparison of the 96-hr LC50 data to toxicity data from other studies indicates that the bryozoa are more sensitive to the tested metals than many other invertebrates and fish, indicating potential as chemical controls with further research (Pardue and Wood 1980).

Freshwater bryozoans are generally sensitive to heavy metals, particularly copper (Bushnell 1974). It should be noted that at least one invasive marine bryozoan (Bugula neritina) has demonstrated heavy metal-resistant genotypes, suggesting that metal-intensive antifouling agents may have diminished effectiveness on their populations (Piola and Johnston 2006).

Note: Check state/provincial and local regulations for the most up-to-date information regarding permits for control methods. Follow all label instructions.