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The Nonindigenous Occurrences section of the NAS species profiles has a new structure. The section is now dynamically updated from the NAS database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information. Occurrences are summarized in Table 1, alphabetically by state, with years of earliest and most recent observations, and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed. The table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states, years, and drainages selected. References to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the Table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables.

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Common name: a blue octocoral

Identification: Latissimia ningalooensis is an encrusting soft coral that grows in colonies of polyps extending from a thin spreading membrane that is attached to the substrate. The polyps are brown with a blue tinge that varies in intensity, likely depending on the symbiotic algae available to the coral. The blue color is more distinct in their native range and is duller in invasive colonies of Brazil and Puerto Rico (Benayahu et al. 2022; Toledo-Rodriguez et al. 2025). The polyps are non-retractile and have eight tentacles. Each tentacle has two rows of pinnules. The number of pinnules on each polyp is highly variable ranging from 18-50 pinnules. For this reason, pinnule count alone is not sufficient to identify this species (Mantelatto et al. 2018; Benayahu et al. 2022; Toledo-Rodrigues et al. 2025).

Size: Individual polyps average 3.5 mm in height and 0.9 mm in width, but larger polyps have been recorded in nonnative populations (Benayahu et al. 2022). Colonies are encrusting and can cover large areas of substrate (Benayahu et al. 2022; Toledo-Rodriguez et al. 2025).

Native Range: Latissimia ningalooensis is native to inland waters off the coast of Northwestern Australia (Benayahu et al. 2022).

Alaska	Hawaii	Puerto Rico & Virgin Islands	Guam Saipan

Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUCs) Explained
Interactive maps: Point Distribution Maps

Ecology: Latissimia ningalooensis is an encrusting soft coral, a growth pattern in which the polyps protrude off of a thin membrane that grows over the substrate (Benayahu et al. 2022). This species has been found in depths ranging from zero to seven meters where suitable substrate was present, including both natural hard substrate and litter such as plastic, metal, and tires (Mantellato et al. 2018). Latissimia ningalooensis has been observed in sand near hard substrate using holdfasts to anchor itself in the intertidal zone of Brazil (de Carvalho-Junior et al. 2023). This species uses a mixotrophic feeding strategy where it gets energy both from symbiosis with algae and suspension feeding. Its primary diet consists of phytoplankton, zooplankton, rhodophytes, and phaeophytes (Pires-Teixeira et al. 2025). Latissimia ningalooensis is able to reproduce both sexually and asexually. Like other xeniids, it can regenerate from a fragment, aiding in its ability to colonize rapidly (de Carvalho-Junior et al. 2023).

Means of Introduction: The exact means of introduction of this species is unknown. This species is available in the aquarium trade and could have been introduced intentionally or accidentally from an aquarium release. Other possible pathways include commercial shipping ballast water or hitchhiking on floating material such as litter or sargassum (Toledo-Rodriguez et al. 2025).

Status: Latissimia ningalooensis is locally established at the site of Caja de Muertos, Puerto Rico (Toledo-Rodriguez et al. 2025).

Impact of Introduction: Off the coast of Brazil, the rapid increase in cover of L. ningalooensis has resulted in a two-fold decrease of turf algae in invaded sites (de Carvalho-Junior et al. 2023). Latissimia ningalooensis has been recorded growing over other sessile organisms such as sponges and stony corals both in its native and introduced ranges (Benayahu et al. 2022; de Carvalho-Junior et al. 2023; Toledo-Rodriguez et al. 2025). There are no known predators of L. ningalooensis in invaded waters. However, incidental predation by a generalist predator, Stenorhynchus seticornis, has been recorded in laboratory setting and stable isotope analysis suggests occasional predation by S. seticornis in the wild (Pires-Teixeira et al. 2025).

Remarks: When first observed in Brazil, this species was identified as Sansiba sp (Manelatto et al. 2018). Further phylogenetic analysis revealed that the invader was in a separate genus and species altogether (Benayahu et al. 2022).

References: (click for full references)

Benayahu, Y., M. Ekins, L.P. van Ofwegen, K. Samimi-Namin, and C.S. McFaddan. 2022. On some encrusting Xeniidae (Octocorallia): Re-examination of the type material of Sansibia flava (May, 1898) and a description of new taxa. Zootaxa 5093(4): 421-444. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5093.4.3.

de Carvalho-Junior, L., L.M. Neves, T.P. Teizeira-Neves, and S.J. Cardoso. 2023. Long-term changes in benthic communities following the invasion by an alien octocoral in the Southwest Atlantic, Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin 186:114386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114386.

Mantellato, M.C., A.G. da Silva, T.D.S. Louzada, C.S. McFadden, and J.C. Creed. 2018. Invasion of aquarium origin soft corals on a tropical rocky reef in the southwest Atlantic, Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin 130: 84-94. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.03.014.

Pires-Teixeira, L.M., V. Neres-Lima, and J.C. Creed. 2025. Diversity analysis and trophic structure of a recently invaded tropical rocky shore. Biological Invasions 27:6. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-024-03478-0.

Toledo-Rodriguez, D.A., C.S. McFadden, N.M. Jimenez Marrero, J.D. Muñoz-Maravilla, A.J. Veglia, E. Weil, and N.V. Schizas. 2025. Discovery of Latissimia ningalooensis: a new invasive soft coral species in Puerto Rico. Biological Invasions 27:246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-025-03702-5.

Author: Stratton, L.D.

This information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information has not received final approval by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and is provided on the condition that neither the USGS nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.