Disclaimer:

The Nonindigenous Occurrences section of the NAS species profiles has a new structure. The section is now dynamically updated from the NAS database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information. Occurrences are summarized in Table 1, alphabetically by state, with years of earliest and most recent observations, and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed. The table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states, years, and drainages selected. References to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the Table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables.

---

Common name: Cane Toad

Synonyms and Other Names: marine toad, giant toad, bufo toad

Taxonomy: available through www.itis.gov

Identification: Rhinella marina is an enormous, warty terrestrial toad (bufonid) that can weigh up to 1.5 kg (3.3 lbs) (Conant and Collins, 1998). Large individuals sitting on roadways are easily mistaken for boulders (Lee, 1996). Adult males have more robust forelimbs than adult females (Lee, 2001). These massive brown or dark-mottled toads have a pair of enormous, deeply pitted parotoid glands that produce bufotoxins, which act as neurotoxins, each extending from just behind the eye, far down the side of the body, (Conant and Collins, 1998; Powell et al., 1998; Lever, 2001). The pupils of the eye are horizontal and the irises golden, and the Cane Toad has distinct ridges running from above their eyes down the snout (Conant and Collins, 1998). The tadpoles are black dorsally, with a belly that is silvery white with black spots (Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Lee, 1996; Altig et al. 1998). Tadpoles of R. marina are illustrated in Lee (1996), McKeown (1996), Lever (2001), Savage (2002), and Duellman (2005).

The call is a low-pitched, staccato trill that is slow and often likened to the sound of a distant tractor (Conant and Collins, 1998; Lever, 2001; Savage, 2002). Recordings of the calls of R. marina are available on several CDs (Library of Natural Sounds, 1996; Bogert, 1998; Rivero, 1998).

Cane toads are commonly illustrated and appear in an enormous variety of publications (Behler and King, 1979; Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Bartlett, 1994; Zug et al., 2001; Beltz, 2005).

Size: 100-238 mm SVL (snout-vent length; measurement from snout to base of tailbone). Individuals found in the U.S. rarely exceed 178 mm SVL (Conant and Collins, 1998; Lever, 2001)

Native Range: Cane toads are indigenous to much of South America north through Central America, and Mexico northward to extreme southern Texas (Campbell, 1999; Conant and Collins, 1998; Duellman, 1999a, 2005; Duellman and Sweet, 1999; Dixon, 2000).

Alaska	Hawaii	Puerto Rico & Virgin Islands	Guam Saipan

Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUCs) Explained
Interactive maps: Point Distribution Maps

Ecology: In the wild, these large toads are nonselective, opportunistic carnivores that consume a wide variety of invertebrates, vertebrates (including other frogs and smaller R. marina), and carrion, occasionally supplementing their diet with plant matter (Oliver, 1955; Zug and Zug, 1979; Campbell, 1998; Meshaka et al., 2004; Hagman and Shine, 2008). In urban and suburban environments, R. marina living near human habitations will eat dog and cat food left outdoors for resident pets, along with a variety of household garbage including carrot peelings, lettuce, rutabagas, cooked rice, rotting avocados, and feces (Alexander, 1964; Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Savage, 2002; Meshaka et al., 2004). In the 1970s, J. Wiley (personal communication 2006) observed cane toads entering an open doorway to a restaurant in Guanacaste, Costa Rica, in order to feed on table scraps that had fallen beneath patrons’ tables. Patrons tossing scraps down to the toads encouraged this foraging behavior. In another unusual incident, a cane toad snapped up a lit cigarette butt with no noticeable negative effects (Lewis, 1989; Lever, 2001). While vision is the principle means of detecting prey, R. marina can use smell to detect immobile food items (Lever, 2001, 2003; Meshaka et al., 2004).

Rhinella marina reproduces at almost any time of the year unless the temperature is too cold, laying thousands or tens-of-thousands of eggs, encased in gelatinous strings, in any temporary or permanent body of water, including brackish waters (Zug and Zug, 1979; Schwartz and Henderson, 1991; Lever, 2001).  In Florida, these toads will opportunistically utilize new breeding sites created by hurricanes, often in urban environments (Meshaka, 1993, 2001; Meshaka et al., 2004). Their high tolerance to saline waters (Lever, 2001; Wingate, [2002]) may have given rise to their specific scientific name Rhinella marina (Lever, 2001).

Means of Introduction: Both in the U.S. and worldwide, R. marina is normally introduced intentionally in a misguided attempt to control insect agricultural pests, primarily in cane fields (Pemberton, 1933; King and Krakauer, 1966; Lewis, 1989; McCoid and Kleberg, 1995; Zweifel, 1998; Meshaka et al., 2004).  In Florida, intentional and accidental releases from animal importers also have occurred (King and Krakauer, 1966). Those R. marina collected from Bay County, in the Florida Panhandle, escaped from a local zoo (Himes, 2007). Some nonindigenous cane toads released in Papua New Guinea were from animals used in laboratories for human pregnancy testing (Zug et al., 1975; Lever, 2001, 2003).

Status: Cane toads are established in Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam (including Cocos Island) and Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and Republic of Palau.

Most worldwide introductions have produced successfully established populations (Easteal, 1981, 1986; Brown et al., 2007) with the notable exceptions of Taiwan, Thailand, Korea, Egypt, Mauritius, Cuba, Dominica, Carabita Island of Jamaica, Cook Islands, and the Marshall Islands (Schwartz and Thomas, 1975; Schwartz and Henderson, 1991; Lever, 2003). The most successfully established populations of nonindigenous R. marina are best described as Pan-Pacific and Pan-Caribbean.

Impact of Introduction: In many nonindigenous localities, such as Florida and Hawaii, the exact impact of R. marina on indigenous ecosystems remains unclear. Pets that eat or bite cane toads become seriously ill from the milky venom (bufotoxins, which act as neurotoxins) contained within the massive parotoid glands and human poisonings are not unknown (Oliver, 1949; Ashton and Ashton, 1998; Lee, 1996; McCann et al., 1996; Lever, 2003; Beltz, 2005).  The complex toxic secretion from these glands can be squirted into the eyes when toads are handled roughly, causing intense pain and a potential medical emergency (Blair, 1947; Lewis, 1989; Lever, 2001). The widely touted use of R. marina venom as a hallucinogen narcotic in the U. S. may be an urban myth, at least for this particular species of toad; it is difficult to determine what complex method would have to be devised to selectively neutralize some of the toxins so that it can be used as a hallucinogen (Lee, 1996; Lever, 2001; Beltz, 2005). However, some cultures utilize extracts from the venom to concoct traditional medicines (Crump, 2000; Beltz, 2005). Lee (1996) provides an extensive discussion on the toxicity and potential pharmacological properties of cane toad venom.

Large numbers of R. marina aggregate around artificial bee hives placed near ground level and eat domestic honey bees (Oliver, 1949). Sizable breeding aggregations of chorusing males are a loud nuisance in Puerto Rico (Oliver, 1949).

Although North American predators that normally eat toads (bufonids) and their tadpoles may be adapted to dealing with such toxic meals, in areas such as Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Bermuda, where no indigenous bufonids occur, anuran predators can suffer ill effects or death (McCann et al., 1996; Greer, 1997; Crossland and Azevedo-Ramos, 1999; Davenport et al., 2001). The toxins found in the eggs and tadpoles can poison some but not all tadpole predators (Crossland and Azevedo-Ramos, 1999; Punzo and Lindstrom, 2001). The same may be true of indigenous Hawaiian predators; however, McKeown (1996) observed a Palea steindachneri (wattle-necked softshell), a nonindigenous turtle, eating a R. marina, and a similar observation was made of an indigenous opossum in Panama, Didelphis marsupialis, successfully consuming this bufonid with no ill effects (Laurance and Laurance, 2007).

In residential areas of Florida, R. marina may displace the native bufonid, Anaxyrus terrestris (Krakauer, 1968; Wilson and Porras, 1983). It is probably the voracious predatory abilities of R. marina that may have the most serious impact upon indigenous wildlife (Zweifel, 1998); however, this aspect of its impact remains unstudied (McCann et al., 1996). The nonindigenous tick, Amblyomma rotundatum, was introduced to Florida through parasitized R. marina, and the common dog hookworm, Aclyostoma caninum, was found in the feces of cane toads from Tampa (Oliver et al., 1993; Meshaka et al., 2004). Cane toad tadpoles in Florida, in combination with the presence of the nonindigenous Cuban Treefrog, Osteopilus septentrionalis, can negatively impact native tadpole species (Smith, 2005).

Remarks: Several authorities have provided morphological and taxonomic reviews or summaries of R. marina (Easteal, 1986; Collins and Taggart, 2002; Haas, 2003; Pauly et al., 2004; Pough et al., 2004; Bever, 2005; Pramuk, 2006; Chaparro et al., 2007). Frost et al. (2006) transferred all New World bufonids out of the genus Bufo, consequently placing “Bufo” marinus into the genus Chaunus in their sweeping taxonomic revision of the Amphibia. Systematic research by Pramuk (2006) suggested an additional split within this South American group. More recently, Chaparro et al. (2007) transferred this and some other South American bufonid species into the genus Rhinella (Frost, 2007; Frost et al. 2008). The taxonomy of this group remains dynamic. Liner (1994) provided a Spanish vernacular name for R. marina in Mexico. Various studies and summaries of the natural history of R. marina have been published (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991; Campbell, 1998; Schlaepfer and Pilgrim, 2003; Vaz-Silva and da Frota, 2004; Vargas-Salinas, 2005; Laurance and Laurance, 2007). Summaries of the complex history of introductions of cane toads worldwide are provided by Oliver (1949), Easteal (1981, 1986, 1989), Easteal and Floyd (1986), and Lever (2001, 2003).

The clearing of forests for agriculture and roadways in Amazonian South America creates new habit that is quickly invaded by R. marina (Duellman, 1999b). In Australia, cane toads can disperse rapidly by using sparsely vegetated roadside clearings as corridors (Brown et al., 2006). Sensitivity to cold weather and their restriction to disturbed anthropogenic habitats may eventually halt the slow, northward spread of R. marina in Florida (Krakauer, 1968, 1970; McCann et al., 1996).

References: (click for full references)

Alexander, T. R. 1964. Observations on the feeding behavior of Bufo marinus (Linne). Herpetologica 20(4):255-259.

Altig, R., R. W. McDiarmid, K. A. Nichols, and P. C. Ustach. 1998. A key to the anuran tadpoles of the United States and Canada. Contemporary Herpetology Information Series [online] (2):URL: http://www.cnah.org/ch/chis/1998/2/index.htm.

Ashton, R. E., Jr., and P. S. Ashton. 1988. Handbook of Reptiles and Amphibians of Florida. Part Three. The Amphibians. Windward Publishing, Inc., Miami. 191 pp.

Bartlett, R. D. 1994. Florida’s alien herps.  Reptile & Amphibian Magazine (27):56-73, 103-109.

Bartlett, D. [=R. D.] 2002. Krazy for the Keys. Reptiles 10(4):22-26.

Behler, J. L., and F. W. King. 1979. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York. 743 pp

Beltz, E. 2005. Frogs. Inside Their Remarkable World. Firefly Books Ltd, Richmond Hill, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York. 175 pp

Bever, G. S. 2005. Variation in the ilium of North American Bufo (Lissamphibia; Anura) and its implications for species-level identification of fragmentary anuran fossils. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25(3):548-560.

Blair, A. P. 1947. Defensive use of parotoid secretion by Bufo marinus. Copeia 1947(2):137.

Bogert, C. M. 1998. Sounds of North American Frogs. The Biological Significance of Voice in Frogs. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, Washington, D.C. Audio CD Recording

Brown, G. P., B. J. Phillips, J. K. Webb, and R. Shine. 2006. Toad on the road: Use of roads as dispersal corridors by Cane Toads (Bufo marinus) at an invasion front in tropical Australia. Biological Conservation 133(1):88-94.

Brown, G. P., C. Shilton, B. L. Phillips, and R. Shine. 2007. Invasion, stress, and spinal arthritis in Cane Toads. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 104(45):17698-17700.

Burton, F. J., and A. C. Echternacht. 2003. Geographic distribution: Bufo marinus (Cane Toad). British West Indies: Cayman Islands: Grand Cayman. Herpetological Review 34(3):257

Campbell, J. A. 1998. Amphibians and Reptiles of Northern Guatemala, the Yucatán, and Belize. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma. 380 pp.

Campbell, J. A. 1999. Distribution patterns of amphibians in Middle America. Pp. 111-210. In: W. E. Duellman (editor). Patterns of Distribution of Amphibians. A Global Perspective. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 633 pp

Censky, E. J., and H. Kaiser. 1999. The Lesser Antillean fauna. Pp. 181-221. In: B. I. Crother (editor). Caribbean Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic Press, San Diego. 495 pp.

Chaparro, J. C., J. B. Pramuk, and A. G. Gluesenkamp. 2007. A new species of arboreal Rhinella (Anura: Bufonidae) from cloud forest of southeastern Peru. Herpetologica 63(2):203-212..

Collins, J. T., and T. W. Taggart. 2002. Standard Common and Current Scientific Names for North American Amphibians, Turtles, Reptiles & Crocodilians. Fifth Edition. The Center for North American Herpetology, Lawrence, Kansas.  44 pp.

Conant, R., and J. T. Collins. 1998. A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians. Eastern and Central North America. Third Edition, Expanded. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 616 pp.

Crossland, M. R., and C. Azevedo-Ramos. 1999. Effects of Bufo (Anura: Bufonidae) toxins on tadpoles from native and exotic Bufo habitats. Herpetologica 55(2):192-199.

Crump, M. [L.] 2000. In Search of the Golden Frog. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. 299 pp.

Davenport, J., J. Hills, A. Glasspool, and J. Ward. 2001. Threats to the critically endangered endemic Bermudan skink Eumeces longirostris. Oryx 35(4):332-339.

Dixon, J. R. 2000. Amphibians and Reptiles of Texas. Second Edition. Texas A & M University Press, College Station. 421 pp.

Duellman, W. E. 1999a. Distribution patterns of amphibians in South America. Pp. 255-328. In: W. E. Duellman (editor). Patterns of Distribution of Amphibians. A Global Perspective. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 633 pp.

Duellman, W. E. 1999b. Global distribution of amphibians: Patterns, conservation, and future changes. Pp. 1-30. In: W. E. Duellman (editor). Patterns of Distribution of Amphibians. A Global Perspective. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 633 pp.

Duellman, W. E. 2005. Cusco Amazónico. The Lives of Amphibians and Reptiles in an Amazonian Rainforest. Comstock Publishing Associates, Cornell University Press. 433 pp.

Duellman, W. E., and S. S. Sweet. 1999. Distribution patterns of amphibians in the Nearctic Region of North America. Pp. 31-109. In: W. E. Duellman (editor). Patterns of Distribution of Amphibians. A Global Perspective. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 633 pp.

Easteal, S. 1981. The history of introductions of Bufo marinus (Amphibia: Anura); a natural experiment in evolution. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 16(2):93-113.

Easteal, S. 1986. Bufo marinus. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles (395):1-4.

Easteal, S. 1989. The effects of genetic drift during range expansion on geographical patterns of variation: A computer simulation of the colonization of Australia by Bufo marinus. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 37(4):281-295.

Easteal, S., and R. B. Floyd. 1986. The ecological genetics of introduced populations of the Giant Toad, Bufo marinus: Dispersal and neighbourhood size. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 27(1):17-45.

Frost, D. [R.] 2007. Amphibian Species of the World 5.1, an Online Reference. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Available on URL: http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index.php.

Frost, D. R., T. Grant, J. Faivovich, R. H. Bain, A. Haas, C. F. B. Haddad, R. O. De Sá, A. Channing, M. Wilkinson, S. C. Donnellan, C. J. Raxworthy, J. A. Campbell, B. L. Blotto, P. Moler, R. C. Drewes, R. A. Nussbaum, J. D. Lynch, D. M. Green, and W. C. Wheeler. 2006. The amphibian tree of life. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 297:1-370 + Fig. 50 foldout.

Frost, D. R., R. W. McDiarmid, and J. R. Mendelson III. 2008. Anura—frogs. Pp. 2-12. In: B. I. Crother (chair), and Committee on Standard English and Scientific Names (editors). Scientific and standard English names of amphibians and reptiles of North America north of Mexico, with comments regarding confidence in our understanding. Sixth Edition. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles Herpetological Circular (37):1-84.

Greer, A. E. 1997. The Biology and Evolution of Australian Snakes. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Limited, Chipping Norton, Australia. 358 pp.

Haas, A. 2003. Phylogeny of frogs as inferred from primarily larval characters (Amphibia: Anura). Cladistics 19(1):23-89.

Hagman, M., and R. Shine. 2008. Deceptive digits: The functional significance of toe waving by cannibalistic Cane Toads, Chaunus marinus. Animal Behaviour 75(1):123-131.

Himes, J. G. 2007. Geographic distribution. Bufo marinus (Marine Toad). USA: Florida: Bay Co. Herpetological Review 38(4):473.

King, [F.] W., and T. Krakauer. 1966. The exotic herpetofauna of southeast Florida. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 29(2):144-154.

Krakauer, T. 1968. The ecology of the neotropical toad, Bufo marinus, in South Florida. Herpetologica 24(3):214-221.

Krakauer, T. 1970. Tolerance limits of the toad, Bufo marinus, in South Florida. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 33(1):15-16.

Krysko, K. L., K. M. Enge, J. H. Townsend, E. M. Langan, S. A. Johnson, and T. S. Campbell. 2005. New county records of amphibians and reptiles from Florida. Herpetological Review 36(1):85-87.

Laurance, S. G., and W. F. Laurance. 2007. Chaunus marinus (Cane Toad). Predation. Herpetological Review 38(3):320-321.

Lee, J. C. 1996. The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Yucatán Peninsula.  Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. 500 pp.

Lee, J. C. 2001. Evolution of a secondary sexual dimorphism in the toad, Bufo marinus. Copeia 2001(4):928-935.

Lever, C. 2001. The Cane Toad. The History and Ecology of a Successful Colonist. Westbury Academic and Scientific Publishing, Otley, West Yorkshire, England.  230 pp.

Lever, C. 2003. Naturalized Reptiles and Amphibians of the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 318 pp.

Lewis, S. 1989. Cane Toads. An Unnatural History. Dolphin/Doubleday, New York. 99 pp.

Library of Natural Sounds. 1996. Voices of the Night. The Calls of the Frogs and Toads of Eastern North America. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Ithaca. Audio CD Recording.

Liner, E. A. 1994. Scientific and common names for the amphibians and reptiles of Mexico in English and Spanish. Nombres científicos y comunes en Ingles y Españole de los anfibios y los reptiles de México. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles Herpetological Circular (23):i-vi, 1-113.

Lobdell, R. N. 1936. Field and laboratory studies upon insect pests of South Florida with particular reference to methods of control. State Project 87. University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Report 1936:123-124.

Lobdell, R. N. 1937. Insect pests and their control. State Project 87. University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Report 1937:141-142.

Matsui, M. 1975. On the record of the Giant Toad, Bufo marinus, from Minami-Daitojima, Ryukyu Archipelago. Japanese Journal of Herpetology 6(2):43-47.

McCann, J. A., L. N. Arkin, and J. D. Williams. 1996. Nonindigenous Aquatic and Selected Terrestrial Species in Florida. Status, Pathways, Dates of Introduction, Range Distributions, and Significant Ecological and Economic Effects. Florida Caribbean Science Center, U. S. Geological Survey, Gainesville. 301 pp.

McCoid, M. J., and C. Kleberg. 1995. Non-native reptiles and amphibians. Pp. 433-437. In: E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac (editors). Our Living Resources: A Report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance, and Health of U. S. Ecosystems. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Washington, D. C. 530 pp.

McKeown, S. 1996. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians in the Hawaiian Islands. Diamond Head Publishing, Inc., Los Osos, California. 172 pp.

Meshaka, W. E., Jr. 1993. Hurricane Andrew and the colonization of five invading species in South Florida. Florida Scientist 56(4):193-201.

Meshaka, W. E., Jr. 2001. The Cuban Tree Frog in Florida. Life History of a Successful Colonizing Species. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. 191 pp.

Meshaka, W. E., Jr., B. P. Butterfield, and J. B. Hauge. 2004. The Exotic Amphibians and Reptiles of Florida. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 155 pp.

Oliver, J. A. 1949. The peripatetic toad. Natural History 58(1):29-33.

Oliver, J. A. 1955. The Natural History of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton. 359 pp.

Oliver, J. A., and C. E. Shaw. 1953. The amphibians and reptiles of the Hawaiian Islands. Zoologica (New York) 38(5):65-95.

Oliver, J. H., M. P. Hayes, K. E. Keirans, and D. R. Lavender. 1993. Establishment of the foreign parthenogenetic tick Amblyomma rotundatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in Florida. Journal of Parasitology 79(5):786-790.

Paice, M. R. 2005. Geographic distribution: Bufo marinus (Cane Toad). Lesser Antilles: St. Vincent: The Grenadines. Herpetological Review 36(3):331-332.

Pauly, G. B., D. M. Hillis, and D. C. Cannatella. 2004. The history of a Nearctic colonization: Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the Nearctic toads (Bufo). Evolution 58(11):2517-2535.

Pemberton, C. E. 1933. Introduction to Hawaii of the tropical American Toad Bufo marinus. Hawaiian Planters’ Record 38:15-16.

Pough, F. H., R. M. Andrews, J. E. Cadle, M. L. Crump, A. H. Savitzky, and K. D. Wells. 2004 [2003]. Herpetology. Third Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 726 pp.

Powell, R., J. T. Collins, and E. D. Hooper, Jr. 1998. A Key to Amphibians & Reptiles of the Continental United States and Canada. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence. 131 pp.

Powell, R., and R. W. Henderson. 2003. A second set of addenda to the checklist of West Indian amphibians and reptiles. Herpetological Review 34(4):341-345.

Powell, R., R. W. Henderson, K. Adler, and H. A. Dundee. 1996. An annotated checklist of West Indian amphibians and reptiles. Pp. 51-91, plates 1-8. In: R. Powell and R. W. Henderson (editors). Contributions to West Indian Herpetology. A Tribute to Albert Schwartz. Contributions to Herpetology 12. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Ithaca. 475 pp.

Powell, R., J. A. Ottenwalder, and S. J. Incháustegui. 1999. The Hispaniolan herpetofauna: Diversity, endemism, and historical perspectives, with comments on Navassa Island. Pp. 93-168. In: B. I. Crother (editor). Caribbean Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic Press, San Diego. 495 pp.

Pramuk, J. B. 2006. Phylogeny of South American Bufo (Anura: Bufonidae) inferred from combined evidence. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 146(3):407-452.

Punzo, F., and L. Lindstrom. 2001. The toxicity of eggs of the Giant Toad, Bufo marinus to aquatic predators in a Florida retention pond. Journal of Herpetology 35(4):693-697.

Rivero, J. A. 1998. Los Anfibios y Reptiles de Puerto Rico. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Puerto Rico. Segunda Edición Revisada. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan. 510 pp. + CD.

Savage, J. M. 2002. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica. A Herpetofauna between Two Continents, between Two Seas. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. 934 pp.

Schlaepfer, M.A., and K. A. Pilgrim. 2003. Geographic distribution: Bufo marinus (Cane Toad). Costa Rica: Puntarenas. Herpetological Review 34(2):161.

Schwartz, A., and R. W. Henderson. 1991. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies: Descriptions, Distributions, and Natural History. University of Florida Press, Gainesville. 720 pp.

Schwartz, A., and R. Thomas. 1975. A check-list of West Indian amphibians and reptiles. Carnegie Museum of Natural History Special Publication (1):1-216.

Sengoku, S. 1979. [Amphibians and Reptiles. Ienohikari (House of Light) Corporation, Tokyo.] [In Japanese.] 206 pp.

Smith, K. G. 2005. Effects of nonindigenous tadpoles on native tadpoles in Florida: Evidence of competition. Biological Conservation 123(4):433-441.

Tyler, M. J. 1999. Distribution patterns of amphibians in the Australo-Papuan region. Pp. 541-556. In: W. E. Duellman (editor). Patterns of Distribution of Amphibians. A Global Perspective. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 633 pp.

Vargas-Salinas, F. 2005. Bufo marinus (Cane Toad). Amplexus displacement. Herpetological Review 36(4):431-432.

Vaz-Silva, W., and J. G. da Frota. 2004. Bufo marinus (Marine Toad). Defensive behavior. Herpetological Review 35(4):371.

Wiley, J. R. 2006. Personal communication—Assistant Curator, Florida State Collection of Arthropods, Entomology Section, Division of Plant Industry, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, 1911 SW 34th Street, Gainesville, Florida, 32614-7100.

Wilson, L. D., and L. Porras. 1983. The ecological impact of man on the South Florida herpetofauna. University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Special Publication (9):i-vi, 1-89.

Wingate, D. [2002.] Saving the skink. Wildlife Bermuda [2002]:30-32.

Zug, G. R., E. Lindgren, and J. R. Pippet. 1975. Distribution and ecology of the Marine Toad, Bufo marinus, in Papua New Guinea. Pacific Science 29(1):31-50.

Zug, G. R., L. J. Vitt, and J. P. Caldwell. 2001. Herpetology. An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Second Edition. Academic Press, San Diego. 630 pp.

Zug, G. R., and P. B. Zug. 1979. The Marine Toad, Bufo marinus: A natural history resumé of native populations. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology (284):i-iv, 1-58.

Zweifel, R. G. 1998. Frogs & Toads. Pp. 76-105. In: H. G. Cogger and R. G. Zweifel (editors). Encyclopedia of Amphibians & Reptiles. Second Edition. Academic Press, San Diego. 240 pp.

Other Resources:
Nonindigenous Species Website Links

Frogs and Toads of Florida

Bufo marinus (Marine Toad) (Gulf of Mexico Program)

Bufo marinus (Global Invasive Species Database)

Marine toads (Bufo marinus) (University of Florida, IFAS)

US Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological Risk Screening Summary for Rhinella marina

Author: Somma, L.A.

This information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information has not received final approval by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and is provided on the condition that neither the USGS nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.