NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic Species

Common name: Cane Toad

Taxonomy: available through www.itis.gov

Identification: Rhinella marina is an enormous, warty bufonid (true toad) with a SVL (snout-vent length) of 100-238 mm (4-over 9.25 in) (Conant and Collins, 1998; Lever, 2001). Individuals found in the U.S. rarely exceed 178 mm (7 in) (Conant and Collins, 1998).  Females may weigh up to 1.5 kg (3.3 lbs) (Conant and Collins, 1998).  Large individuals sitting on roadways are easily mistaken for boulders (Lee, 1996). Adult males have more robust forelimbs than adult females (Lee, 2001). These massive brown or dark-mottled toads have a pair of enormous, deeply pitted parotoid glands, each extending from the temporal region of the head, far down the side of the body, well past the axillary region (Lee, 1996; Conant and Collins, 1998; Powell et al., 1998; Lever, 2001; McCranie and Wilson, 2002; McCranie et al. 2006). The call is a low-pitched, staccato trill that is slow and often likened to the sound of a distant tractor (Lee, 1996; Conant and Collins, 1998; Lever, 2001; Savage, 2002; Duellman, 2005). Recordings of the calls of R. marina are available on several CDs (Library of Natural Sounds, 1996; Bogert, 1998; Rivero, 1998). The tadpoles are black dorsally, with a venter (belly) that is silvery white with black spots (Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Lee, 1996; Altig et al. 1998). Tadpoles of R. marina are illustrated in Lee (1996), McKeown (1996), Lever (2001), Savage (2002), and Duellman (2005).

Cane Toads are commonly illustrated and appear in an enormous variety of publications (Vellard and Penteado, 1930a, b; Wright and Wright, 1949; Oliver and Shaw, 1953; Oliver, 1955; Alexander, 1964; McKeown, 1978, 1996; Smith, 1978; Behler and King, 1979; Sengoku, 1979; Freiberg and Walls, 1984; Chan and Young, 1985; [Mathui], 1985; Garrett and Barker, 1987; Mattison, 1987; Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Hoser, 1989; Lazell, 1989; Lewis, 1989; Tyler, 1989; Carmichael and Williams, 1991; Bartlett, 1994; McCoid and Kleberg, 1995; Lee, 1996, 2001; Meyer and Foster, 1996; Murphy, 1997; Renjifo, [1997]; Campbell, 1998; Carpenter, 1998; Conant and Collins, 1998; Joglar, 1998; Powell et al., 1998; Rivero, 1998; Zweifel, 1998; Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999a, b; Cogger, 2000; Crump, 2000; Lever, 2001; Zug et al., 2001; McCranie and Wilson, 2002; Savage, 2002; Schlaepfer and Pilgrim, 2003; Meshaka et al., 2004; Beltz, 2005; Duellman, 2005; McCranie et al. 2006; Pramuk, 2006).

Size: SVL is 100-238 mm (4-over 9.25 in).

Native Range: Cane Toads are indigenous to northern South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, Paraguay, Venezuela, the Guianas, mainland Honduras, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago), Central America, and Mexico northward to extreme southern Texas (Cameron, Hidalgo, Jim Hogg, Starr, Webb, and Zapata Counties) (Blair, 1947; Axtell and Wasserman, 1953; Neill, 1965; Smith and Smith, 1973, 1976, 1993; Zug and Zug, 1979; Frost, 1985; Easteal, 1986; Garrett and Barker, 1987; Flores-Villela, 1993; Lee, 1996; Meyer and Foster, 1996; Murphy, 1997; Renjifo, [1997]; Campbell, 1998, 1999; Conant and Collins, 1998; Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999a; Duellman, 1999a, 2005; Duellman and Sweet, 1999; Auth et al., 2000; Dixon, 2000; Lever, 2001; McCranie and Wilson, 2002; Savage, 2002; McCranie et al., 2006).

Means of Introduction: Both in the U.S. and worldwide, R. marina is normally introduced intentionally in a misguided attempt to control insect agricultural pests, primarily in cane fields (Pemberton, 1933; Lobdell, 1936, 1937; Oliver, 1949, 1955; Oliver and Shaw, 1953; Riemer, 1958; King and Krakauer, 1966; Zug et al., 1975; Easteal, 1981, 1986; Lewis, 1989; Hoser, 1989; McCoid and Kleberg, 1995; McCann et al., 1996; Zweifel, 1998; Cogger, 2000; Lever, 2001; Meshaka et al., 2004).  In Florida, intentional and accidental releases from animal importers also have occurred (King and Krakauer, 1966).  Those R. marina collected from Bay County, in the Florida Panhandle, escaped from a local zoo (Himes, 2007). Some nonindigenous Cane Toads released in Papua New Guinea were from animals used in laboratories for human pregnancy testing (Zug et al., 1975; Lever, 2001, 2003).

Status: The only Cane Toad found in Massachusetts was collected; it is not established in this state (Cardoza et al., 1993).

In Florida, R. marina is apparently established in Bay, Broward, Miami-Dade, Citrus, Glades, Highlands, Hillsborough, Lee, Martin, Monroe (including Stock Island and Key West), Okeechobee, Orange, Palm Beach, Pasco, Pinellas, and Polk Counties (Duellman and Schwartz, 1958; Fitcher, 1970; Stevenson, 1976; Wilson and Porras, 1983; Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Moler, 1988; Lazell, 1989; Carmichael and Williams, 1991; Stevenson and Crowe, 1992; Bartlett, 1994, 2002; Dalrymple, 1994; Beltz, 1995; McCoid and Kleberg, 1995; McCann et al., 1996; Butterfield et al., 1997; Meshaka, 1997, 1999a, b; Conant and Collins, 1998; Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999b; Duellman and Sweet, 1999; Meshaka et al., 2000, 2004; Lever, 2001; Ferriter et al., 2006; King, 2006; Himes, 2007).  Cane Toads introduced to Hendry and Sarasota Counties failed, along with the original, but not subsequent, introductions to Palm Beach and Miami-Dade (prior to 1958) Counties (Lever, 2001).  The R. marina collected from Clay County, northern Florida, represents a single specimen (Florida Museum of Natural History records; Meshaka et al., 2004) and is not indicative of an established population.  Specimens found in Ocala, Marion County, by R. Ashton (in McCann et al., 1996) require further verification to determine if a viable population exists in this county.  (Note:  The range map of Florida depicted in Lever [2001] is inaccurate in that it depicts the range of R. marina as occurring in most of the southwestern counties of the state, rather than the southeastern counties.  Smith [2002] also has criticized this map.) 

Cane Toads failed to establish any reproductive colonies in Louisiana (Easteal, 1981; Lever, 2001, 2003).

Rhinella marina is not established in Arizona; Howland (1996) is somewhat vague about its ultimate status and it is not listed by Brennan and Holycross (2006).

In Hawaii, R. marina remains established on the islands of Kauai, Hawaii (Big Island), Maui, Molokai, and Oahu (Smith and Kohler, 1978; Chan and Young, 1985; McCoid and Kleberg, 1995; McKeown, 1996; Collins and Taggart, 2002; Lever, 2003; Thomas, 2006).

Rhinella marina remains established in Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam (including Cocos Island) and Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and Republic of Palau (Oliver, 1949; McCoid, 1993; McCoid and Kleberg, 1995; Powell et al., 1996; Joglar, 1998; Rivero, 1998; Hedges, 1999; Thomas, 1999; Lever, 2001, 2003).

Most of the other worldwide introductions (listed above) have produced successfully established populations (Zug et al., 1975; Easteal, 1981, 1986; [Mathui], 1985; Hoser, 1989; Schwartz and Henderson, 1991; Censky and Kaiser, 1999; Crombie, 1999; Hedges, 1999; Powell et al., 1999; Tyler, 1999; Cogger, 2000; Ota, 1999; Lever, 2001, 2003; McCranie and Wilson, 2002; Burton and Echternacht, 2003; Phillips et al., 2003; Brown et al., 2007) with the notable exceptions of Taiwan, Thailand, Korea, Egypt, Mauritius, Cuba, Dominica, Carabita Island of Jamaica, Cook Islands, and the Marshall Islands (Schwartz and Thomas, 1975; Schwartz and Henderson, 1991; Lever, 2001, 2003).  The most successfully established populations of nonindigenous R. marina are best described as Pan-Pacific and Pan-Caribbean.

Impact of Introduction: In many nonindigenous localities, such as Florida and Hawaii, the exact impact of R. marina on indigenous ecosystems remains unclear.  Pets that eat or bite Cane Toads become seriously ill from the milky venom contained within the massive parotoid glands and human poisonings are not unknown (Oliver, 1949; Ashton and Ashton, 1998; Lee, 1996; McCann et al., 1996; Lever, 2001, 2003; Beltz, 2005).  The complex toxic secretion from these glands can be squirted into the eyes when toads are handled roughly, causing intense pain and a potential medical emergency (Blair, 1947; Lewis, 1989; Lever, 2001).  The widely touted use of R. marina venom as a narcotic in the U. S. may be an urban myth, at least for this particular species of bufonid; it is difficult to determine what complex method would have to be devised to selectively neutralize some of the toxins so that it can be used as a hallucinogen (Lee, 1996; Lever, 2001; Beltz, 2005). However, some cultures utilize extracts from the venom to concoct traditional medicines (Crump, 2000; Beltz, 2005). Lee (1996) provides an extensive discussion on the toxicity and potential pharmacological properties of Cane Toad venom.

Large numbers of R. marina aggregate around artificial bee hives placed near ground level and eat domestic honey bees (Oliver, 1949). Sizable breeding aggregations of chorusing males are a loud nuisance in Puerto Rico (Oliver, 1949).

Although North American predators that normally eat bufonids and their tadpoles may be adapted to dealing with such toxic meals, in areas such as Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Bermuda were no indigenous bufonids occur, anuran predators can suffer ill effects or death (Hoser, 1989; O’Shea, 1990; McCann et al., 1996; Greer, 1997; Crossland and Azevedo-Ramos, 1999; Davenport et al., 2001; Lever, 2001). The toxins found in the eggs and tadpoles can poison some but not all tadpole predators (Crossland and Azevedo-Ramos, 1999; Punzo and Lindstrom, 2001). The same may be true of indigenous Hawaiian predators; however, McKeown (1996) observed a Palea steindachneri (wattle-necked softshell), a nonindigenous turtle, eating a R. marina, and a similar observation was made of an indigenous opossum in Panama, Didelphis marsupialis, successfully consuming this bufonid with no ill effects (Laurance and Laurance, 2007).

In Australia, most species of indigenous snakes are potentially, adversely impacted the toxins (Phillips et al., 2003; Phillips and Shine, 2006a). Mortality in populations of two species indigenous of snakes that have regularly ingested these toxic toads has resulted in the selection against snakes with a gape size large enough to swallow them (Phillips and Shine, 2004; Phillips and Shine, 2006b). Juvenile and small adult Australian snakes of several species may suffer disproportionately greater mortality (Phillips and Shine, 2006b, c); however, a varying effect may occur in within a single species of indigenous snake due to niche partitioning between the sexes, and between adults and juveniles (Webb et al., 2005). Additionally, Cane Toads adversely impact Australian invertebrate fauna through predation, resulting in a massive nutrient sink in floodplain ecosystems (Greenlees et al., 2006). More intrepid humans in Australia have invented a variety of recipes for consuming Cane Toad legs (Liner, 2005). The most recent research on Cane Toads in Australia is conducted by Rick Shine’s lab and continually updated on its webpage (Elphick, 2008). Shine (2010) suggested that indirect impacts occur in the trophic webs through the reduction in predator populations, and population increases in the species formerly consumed by those predators.

In Bermuda, R. marina is a potential predatory threat to an endangered endemic lizard, the Bermudian rock skink, Plestiodon longirostris, which also might be poisoned by eating the juvenile toads (Davenport et al., 2001; Wingate, [2002]).

In residential areas of Florida, R. marina may displace the native bufonid, Anaxyrus terrestris (Krakauer, 1968; Wilson and Porras, 1993).  It is probably the voracious predatory abilities of R. marina that may have the most serious impact upon indigenous wildlife (Zweifel, 1998); however, this aspect of its impact remains unstudied (McCann et al., 1996).  The nonindigenous tick, Amblyomma rotundatum, was introduced to Florida through parasitized R. marina, and the common dog hookworm, Aclyostoma caninum, was found in the feces of Cane Toads from Tampa (Oliver et al., 1993; Meshaka et al., 2004). Cane Toad tadpoles in Florida, in combination with the presence of the nonindigenous Cuban Treefrog, Osteopilus septentrionalis, can negatively impact native tadpole species (Smith, 2005).

Remarks: Several authorities have provided morphological and taxonomic reviews or summaries of R. marina (Zug and Zug, 1979; Frost, 1985, 2000, 2007; Easteal, 1986; Lever, 2001, 2003; Collins and Taggart, 2002; Haas, 2003; Powell and Henderson, 2003; Pauly et al., 2004; Pough et al., 2004; Bever, 2005; Frost et al., 2006, 2008; Pramuk, 2006; Chaparro et al., 2007). Frost et al. (2006) transferred all New World bufonids out of the genus Bufo, consequently placing “Bufo” marinus into the genus Chaunus in their sweeping taxonomic revision of the Amphibia. Systematic research by Pramuk (2006) suggested an additional split within this South American group. More recently, Chaparro et al. (2007) transferred this and some other South American bufonid species into the genus Rhinella (Frost, 2007; Frost et al. 2008). The taxonomy of this group remains dynamic. Liner (1994) provided a Spanish vernacular name for R. marina in Mexico. Various studies and summaries of the natural history of R. marina have been published (Oliver, 1949, 1955;Wright and Wright, 1949; Krakauer, 1968, 1970; Zug et al., 1975; Zug and Zug, 1979; Schwartz and Henderson, 1991; Meyer and Foster, 1996; Murphy, 1997; Campbell, 1998; Lever, 2001; Schlaepfer and Pilgrim, 2003; Vaz-Silva and da Frota, 2004; Manzanilla et al., 2005; Vargas-Salinas, 2005; Duellman, 2005; Laurance and Laurance, 2007).  Summaries of the complex history of introductions of Cane Toads worldwide are provided by Oliver (1949), Easteal (1981, 1986, 1989), Easteal and Floyd (1986), and Lever (2001, 2003).

In the wild these monster toads are largely nonselective, opportunistic carnivores that consume a wide variety of invertebrates, vertebrates (including other frogs and smaller R. marina), and carrion, occasionally supplementing their diet with plant matter (Oliver and Shaw, 1953; Oliver, 1955; Zug et al., 1975; Zug and Zug, 1979; Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Campbell, 1998; Lever, 2001; Meshaka et al., 2004; Duellman, 2005; Hagman and Shine, 2008). In urban and suburban environments, R. marina living near human habitations will eat dog and cat food left outdoors for resident pets, along with a variety of household garbage including carrot peelings, lettuce, rutabagas, cooked rice, rotting avocados, and feces (Alexander, 1964; Ashton and Ashton, 1988; Savage, 2002; Meshaka et al., 2004). In the 1970s, J. Wiley (personal communication 2006) observed Cane Toads entering an open doorway to a restaurant in Guanacaste, Costa Rica, in order to feed on table scraps that had fallen beneath patrons’ tables. Patrons tossing scraps down to the toads encouraged this foraging behavior. In another unusual incident, a Cane Toad snapped up a lit cigarette butt with no noticeable negative effects (Lewis, 1989; Lever, 2001). While vision is the principle means of detecting prey, R. marina can use olfaction to detect immobile food items (Lever, 2001, 2003; Meshaka et al., 2004).

Rhinella marina reproduces at almost any time of the year unless the temperature is too cold, laying thousands or tens-of-thousands of eggs, encased in gelatinous strings, in any temporary or permanent body of water, including brackish waters (Krakauer, 1968; Crump, 1974; Zug et al., 1975; Zug and Zug, 1979; Schwartz and Henderson, 1991; Murphy, 1997; Lever, 2001).  In Florida, these toads will opportunistically utilize new breeding sites created by hurricanes, often in urban environments (Meshaka, 1993, 2001; Meshaka et al., 2004). Their high tolerance to saline waters (Lever, 2001; Wingate, [2002]) may have given rise to their specific scientific name (Lever, 2001). Rhinella marina at the first wave of invasion fronts in Australia have significantly longer legs and consequent greater dispersal speeds than those in older, established populations; thus, indicating a rapid adaptive shift in morphology that allows for increased invasiveness in this species (Phillips et al., 2006).

The clearing of forests for agriculture and roadways in Amazonian South America creates new habit that is quickly invaded by R. marina (Duellman, 1999b). In Australia Cane Toads are able to disperse rapidly by using sparsely vegetated roadside clearings as corridors (Brown et al., 2006). Sensitivity to cold weather and their restriction to disturbed anthropogenic habitats may eventually halt the slow, northward spread of R. marina in Florida (Krakauer, 1968, 1970; McCann et al., 1996). However, this prediction ignores the positive impact that thermal adaptation and Global Warming could have on the ability of R. marina to disperse.  Worldwide R. marina is regarded as an icon of an introduced species that has become a major pest (Sharp, 1969; Fitcher, 1970; Rundquist, 1978; Lewis, 1989; Belleville, 1994; Beltz, 1995; McCoid and Kleberg, 1995; Frank and McCoy, 1995; Simberloff, 1997; Zweifel, 1998; Hiaasen, 1999; Cogger, 2000; Zug et al., 2001; Beltz, 2006).

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Other Resources:
Nonindigenous Species Website Links

Frogs and Toads of Florida

Bufo marinus (Marine Toad) (Gulf of Mexico Program)

Bufo marinus (Global Invasive Species Database)

Marine toads (Bufo marinus) (University of Florida, IFAS)

Author: Somma, L.A.

This information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information has not received final approval by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and is provided on the condition that neither the USGS nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.