Disclaimer:

The Nonindigenous Occurrences section of the NAS species profiles has a new structure. The section is now dynamically updated from the NAS database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information. Occurrences are summarized in Table 1, alphabetically by state, with years of earliest and most recent observations, and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed. The table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states, years, and drainages selected. References to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the Table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables.




Myriophyllum aquaticum
Myriophyllum aquaticum
(parrot feather)
Plants
Exotic

Copyright Info
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.

Common name: parrot feather

Synonyms and Other Names: Brazilian watermilfoil, parrot’s feather, parrot-feather, parrotfeather, parrot feather watermilfoil, Enydria aquatica (Vell.), Myriophyllum brasiliense (Camb.), Myriophyllum proserpinacoides (Gillies ex Hook. and Arn.)

Taxonomy: available through www.itis.govITIS logo

Identification: Parrot feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) is heterophyllous, meaning it has both an emergent and submersed leaf form. Emergent leaves are whorled, stiff, and usually have 20 or more linear divisions (10 leaflet pairs) on each leaf (Godfrey and Wooten 1981). The leaves appear feather-like and grayish green and can extend to 30 cm above the water surface.

The submersed shoots, similar to those of Eurasian watermilfoil (M. spicatum), are comprised of whorls of four to six filamentous, pectinate leaves, 1.5 to 3.5 cm long, arising from each node (Mason 1957, Washington State Department of Ecology 2011). Submersed leaves are reddish orange. When the submersed shoots reach the water surface, plant growth changes and begins to creep along the water surface with extensive branching from nodes followed by vertical growth of emergent stems (Moreira et al. 1999).

Small, white flowers occur in the leaf axils on the emergent shoots and are approximately 1/16 inch long (Washington State Department of Ecology 2011). Parrot feather lacks structures for storage, dispersal, and perennation (e.g., tubers, turions, and winter buds), and therefore stolons serve all these functions (Sytsma and Anderson 1993).

Size: leaves 1.5 to 5 cm, stems up to 5 feet.

Native Range: Myriophyllum aquaticum is a native of the Amazon River basin in South America, including Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, as well as Argentina, Chile, and Paraguay (Washington State Department of Ecology 2011). It prefers to inhabit subtropical regions (Fernandez et al. 1993).

Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUCs) Explained
Interactive maps: Point Distribution Maps

Nonindigenous Occurrences:

Table 1. States with nonindigenous occurrences, the earliest and latest observations in each state, and the tally and names of HUCs with observations†. Names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records. The list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of Myriophyllum aquaticum are found here.

StateFirst ObservedLast ObservedTotal HUCs with observations†HUCs with observations†
AL1957202329Alabama; Buttahatchee; Cahaba; Choctawhatchee-Escambia; Coosa-Tallapoosa; Locust; Lower Chattahoochee; Lower Conecuh; Lower Coosa; Lower Elk; Lower Tallapoosa; Lower Tombigbee; Luxapallila; Middle Alabama; Middle Chattahoochee-Lake Harding; Middle Coosa; Middle Tennessee-Chickamauga; Middle Tennessee-Elk; Middle Tombigbee-Lubbub; Mississippi Coastal; Mobile Bay; Mobile-Tensaw; Pea; Pickwick Lake; Sepulga; Upper Alabama; Upper Choctawhatchee; Upper Conecuh; Wheeler Lake
AZ197020066Agua Fria; Imperial Reservoir; Little Colorado; Lower Colorado; Middle Gila; Salt
AR1927202323Beaver Reservoir; Dardanelle Reservoir; Illinois; L'anguille; Little Missouri; Little Red; Lower Arkansas; Lower Arkansas-Maumelle; Lower Little Arkansas, Oklahoma; Lower Mississippi Region; Lower Mississippi-St. Francis; Lower Neosho; Lower Ouachita-Bayou De Loutre; Lower Ouachita-Smackover; Lower Saline; Lower St. Francis; Lower White; Lower White-Bayou Des Arc; Middle White; Ouachita Headwaters; Upper Ouachita; Upper Ouachita; Upper Saline
CA1933202442Big Chico Creek-Sacramento River; Big-Navarro-Garcia; Butte Creek; Central California Coastal; Central Coastal; Clear Creek-Sacramento River; Coyote; Honcut Headwaters-Lower Feather; Imperial Reservoir; Klamath-Northern California Coastal; Los Angeles; Lower Eel; Lower Sacramento; Mad-Redwood; Middle San Joaquin-Lower Chowchilla; Monterey Bay; North Fork Feather; Pajaro; Paynes Creek-Sacramento River; Russian; Sacramento-Stone Corral; Salinas; San Diego; San Francisco Bay; San Francisco Coastal South; San Gabriel; San Joaquin Delta; San Pablo Bay; Santa Ana; Santa Monica Bay; Suisun Bay; Tomales-Drake Bays; Tulare Lake Bed; Upper Bear; Upper Cache; Upper Coon-Upper Auburn; Upper Cosumnes; Upper Mokelumne; Upper Putah; Upper Stanislaus; Upper Tuolumne; Upper Yuba
CT200120105Housatonic; Outlet Connecticut River; Quinnipiac; Saugatuck; Shetucket River
DE198020225Brandywine-Christina; Broadkill-Smyrna; Chincoteague; Choptank; Nanticoke
DC201220221Middle Potomac-Anacostia-Occoquan
FL1906202450Alafia; Apalachee Bay-St. Marks; Apalachicola; Apalachicola Bay; Aucilla; Big Cypress Swamp; Blackwater; Caloosahatchee; Cape Canaveral; Chipola; Choctawhatchee Bay; Crystal-Pithlachascotee; Daytona-St. Augustine; Econfina-Steinhatchee; Escambia; Everglades; Florida Southeast Coast; Hillsborough; Kissimmee; Lake Okeechobee; Little Manatee; Lower Chattahoochee; Lower Choctawhatchee; Lower Ochlockonee; Lower St. Johns; Lower Suwannee; Manatee; Myakka; Nassau; New; Oklawaha; Peace; Pensacola Bay; Perdido; Perdido Bay; Santa Fe; Sarasota Bay; South Atlantic-Gulf Region; Southern Florida; St. Andrew-St. Joseph Bays; St. Marys; Suwannee; Tampa Bay; Tampa Bay; Upper St. Johns; Vero Beach; Western Okeechobee Inflow; Withlacoochee; Withlacoochee; Yellow
GA1939202326Apalachicola Basin; Brier; Broad; Conasauga; Coosawattee; Cumberland-St. Simons; Etowah; Kinchafoonee-Muckalee; Little; Lower Chattahoochee; Lower Flint; Middle Chattahoochee-Lake Harding; Middle Chattahoochee-Walter F; Middle Savannah; Middle Tennessee-Chickamauga; Oostanaula; Suwannee; Tugaloo; Upper Chattahoochee; Upper Coosa; Upper Flint; Upper Ocmulgee; Upper Oconee; Upper Ogeechee; Upper Suwannee; Withlacoochee
HI191920203Hawaii; Kauai; Oahu
ID192820226Clearwater; Lower Boise; Lower North Fork Clearwater; Payette; Pend Oreille Lake; Upper Snake-Rock
IL200820081Lower Ohio
IN200620142Kankakee; St. Joseph
IA201720171Skunk
KS19351935*
KY198620228Licking; Lower Cumberland; Lower Kentucky; Lower Levisa; Rolling Fork; Upper Cumberland; Upper Cumberland-Lake Cumberland; Upper Green
LA1915202335Amite; Atchafalaya; Atchafalaya - Vermilion; Bayou Sara-Thompson; Bayou Teche; Black Lake Bayou; Boeuf; Bogue Chitto; Castor; East Central Louisiana Coastal; Eastern Louisiana Coastal; Lake Maurepas; Lake Maurepas; Liberty Bayou-Tchefuncta; Louisiana Coastal; Lower Grand; Lower Mississippi; Lower Mississippi Region; Lower Mississippi-New Orleans; Lower Ouachita; Lower Ouachita; Lower Red; Lower Red-Lake Iatt; Lower Red-Ouachita; Lower Sabine; Mermentau; Mermentau Headwaters; Red-Saline; Red-Sulphur; Tickfaw; Upper Calcasieu; Vermilion; West Central Louisiana Coastal; West Fork Calcasieu; Whisky Chitto
ME202220221Lower Kennebec River
MD1950202210Chincoteague; Choptank; Gunpowder-Patapsco; Lower Susquehanna; Middle Potomac-Anacostia-Occoquan; Middle Potomac-Catoctin; Patuxent; Pokomoke-Western Lower Delmarva; Severn; Upper Chesapeake Bay
MA191720224Cape Cod; Charles; Chicopee River; Narragansett
MI196220206Detroit; Huron; Kalamazoo; Muskegon; St. Joseph; Upper Grand
MN201220121Buffalo-Whitewater
MS1944202130Black; Black Warrior-Tombigbee; Bogue Chitto; Chunky-Okatibbee; Coldwater; Deer-Steele; Little Tallahatchie; Lower Big Black; Lower Leaf; Lower Pearl; Luxapallila; Middle Pearl-Strong; Middle Tombigbee-Lubbub; Mississippi Coastal; Noxubee; Pascagoula; Pascagoula; Pickwick Lake; Sucarnoochee; Tallahatchie; Tangipahoa; Tibbee; Upper Big Black; Upper Chickasawhay; Upper Leaf; Upper Pearl; Upper Tombigbee; Yalobusha; Yazoo; Yocona
MO197720223Eleven Point; Elk; South Grand
NJ189020237Cohansey-Maurice; Delaware; Lower Delaware; Middle Delaware-Musconetcong; Mullica-Toms; Raritan; Sandy Hook-Staten Island
NM194520232Elephant Butte Reservoir; Rio Grande-Albuquerque
NY192920225Long Island; Northern Long Island; Owego-Wappasening; Rondout; Southern Long Island
NC1938202428Albemarle; Black; Cape Fear; Chowan; Contentnea; Deep; Haw; Lower Cape Fear; Lower Catawba; Lower Neuse; Lower Roanoke; Lower Tar; Lower Yadkin; Lumber; Middle Neuse; New River; Pamlico; Pamlico Sound; Rocky; Tugaloo; Upper Cape Fear; Upper Catawba; Upper French Broad; Upper Neuse; Upper Pee Dee; Upper Tar; Waccamaw; White Oak River
OH194920236Ashtabula-Chagrin; Hocking; Little Miami; Lower Scioto; Muskingum; Upper Ohio
OK1952202212Deep Fork; Illinois; Kiamichi; Lower Arkansas; Lower Canadian; Lower Neosho; Lower North Canadian; Neosho-Verdigris; Poteau; Red-Sulphur; Red-Washita; Upper Little
OR1900202224Alsea; Coast Fork Willamette; Coos; Illinois; Lower Columbia; Lower Rogue; Lower Willamette; Middle Rogue; Middle Willamette; Molalla-Pudding; Necanicum; Pacific Northwest Region; Siletz-Yaquina; Siltcoos; Siuslaw; Sixes; South Santiam; South Umpqua; Sprague; Tualatin; Umpqua; Upper Willamette; Willamette; Wilson-Trusk-Nestuccu
PA195020224Lower Delaware; Lower Susquehanna; Raystown; Schuylkill
SC1939202319Black; Congaree; Cooper; Edisto River; Edisto-Santee; Enoree; Lower Broad; Lower Catawba; Lower Savannah; Lumber; Middle Savannah; Ogeechee-Savannah; Salkehatchie; Saluda; Santee; Seneca; Stevens; Upper Broad; Wateree
TN1941202324Collins; Emory; Guntersville Lake; Hatchie-Obion; Hiwassee; Holston; Lower Cumberland; Lower Duck; Lower French Broad; Lower Little Tennessee; Lower Tennessee; Middle Tennessee-Chickamauga; Middle Tennessee-Hiwassee; Nolichucky; Obion; Ocoee; Red; South Fork Holston; Stones; Upper Cumberland; Upper Elk; Upper Hatchie; Upper Tennessee; Watts Bar Lake
TX1935202346Austin-Travis Lakes; Buchanan-Lyndon B. Johnson Lakes; Buffalo-San Jacinto; Caddo Lake; Cedar; Cibolo; Denton; East Fork Trinity; Elm Fork Trinity; Elm-Sycamore; Farmers-Mud; Lake Fork; Lake O'the Pines; Lake Texoma; Leon; Little Cypress; Lower Angelina; Lower Brazos-Little Brazos; Lower Colorado-Cummins; Lower Guadalupe; Lower Neches; Lower Sabine; Lower Sulpher; Lower Trinity; Lower Trinity-Kickapoo; Lower Trinity-Tehuacana; Lower West Fork Trinity; Middle Neches; Middle Sabine; Navasota; Nueces Headwaters; Pedernales; Pine Island Bayou; Rio Grande-Amistad; San Bernard; San Gabriel; San Marcos; Spring; Toledo Bend Reservoir; Upper Angelina; Upper Frio; Upper Neches; Village; West Fork San Jacinto; West Galveston Bay; Yegua
UT202020212Jordan; Little Bear-Logan
VA1967202321Albemarle; Albemarle-Chowan; Appomattox; Chowan - Roanoke; Conococheague-Opequon; Hampton Roads; James; Lower Chesapeake; Lower James; Lower Potomac; Lower Rappahannock; Lynnhaven-Poquoson; Middle James-Willis; Middle Potomac-Anacostia-Occoquan; Middle Potomac-Catoctin; North Fork Holston; Nottoway; Pokomoke-Western Lower Delmarva; Shenandoah; South Fork Holston; South Fork Shenandoah
WA1971202015Grays Harbor; Lake Washington; Lower Chehalis; Lower Columbia; Lower Columbia-Clatskanie; Lower Columbia-Sandy; Lower Snake-Tucannon; Lower Yakima; Nisqually; Nooksack; Puget Sound; Skykomish; Snohomish; Upper Chehalis; Willapa Bay
WV197020225Lower Guyandotte; Lower Kanawha; Tygart Valley; Upper Ohio-Shade; West Fork
WI201220121Buffalo-Whitewater

Table last updated 10/13/2024

† Populations may not be currently present.

* HUCs are not listed for states where the observation(s) cannot be approximated to a HUC (e.g. state centroids or Canadian provinces).


Ecology: Parrot feather grows well in shallow wetlands, slow moving streams, irrigation reservoirs or canals, edges of lakes, ponds, sloughs, or backwaters (Sutton 1985). Although it can grow in moist soil and tolerates a wide-range of water levels, parrot feather grows most rapidly in higher water levels (but has been documented in depths up to 16 ft; Banfield 2008) and high-nutrient environments (Hussner et al. 2009; Sutton 1985; Sytsma and Anderson 1993). Parrot feather requires rooting in bottom sediments, in habitats where light can penetrate to the bottom favor growth and colonization. Parrot feather thrives under slightly alkaline conditions (pH range 6.8-8.0), prefers temperatures between 16-23°C, and can withstand a water hardness level between 50-200 ppm (Federation of New Zealand Aquatic Societies, in Mabulu 2005). This species displays photosynthetic activity at pH levels of 6 to 8.5, depths of 0 to 10 meters, and temperatures from 10°C to 30°C, though it can survive even broader ranges (Robinson 2003; WIDNR 2011). It can also survive frequent inundation of salt water as long as concentrations remain below 4 ppt (Sutton 1985). Parrot feather is not seriously affected by frost (Moreira et al. 1999); however, a hard or extended period of frost may kill emergent shoots in northern latitudes (WIDNR 2011). Parrot feather can survive winters in its submersed form and begin growth when water temperatures reach 7°C (Moreira et al. 1999). Nevertheless, invasion tends to fail in areas with severe winters, because parrot feather does not store phosphorus or carbon in its rhizomes (Mabulu 2005).

Parrot feather is a dioecious species, however only pistillate (female) plants are found outside of South America. Staminate (male) plants are rare even in native populations of South America (Orchard 1981). For this reason, seed production is not known to occur (Aiken 1981) and reproduction is exclusively vegetative in North America (Orchard 1981). Reproduction occurs by fragmentation of emergent and/or submersed shoots, roots, rhizomes, or attached plant fragments (Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, UF/IFAS 2010; Les and Mehrhoff 1999; Mabulu 2005).

Parrot feather has an annual growth pattern, forming shoots in spring from overwintering rhizomes as water temperature increases. Rhizomes provide support for adventitious roots and buoyancy for emergent summer growth. Flowers usually appear in spring, or in fall for some plants. The plant usually dies back to its rhizomes in the autumn (Mabulu 2005).

Means of Introduction: Escaped ornamental pond plant.

Status: Established in North America.

Impact of Introduction:
Summary of species impacts derived from literature review. Click on an icon to find out more...

EcologicalEconomicHuman HealthOther




Dense infestations can rapidly overtake small ponds and sloughs, impeding water flow resulting in increased flood duration and intensity. Parrotfeather may also out-compete more desirable native macrophytes. Little information exists on the direct impact that parrotfeather has on fish and wildlife. Dense beds of parrotfeather have resulted in reductions in dissolved oxygen in the water column, which may be detrimental to fish (Fonseca 1984 cited in Moreira et al. 1999). Parrotfeather growth can inhibit the growth of more desirable plant species such as pondweeds and coontail (Ferreira and Moreira 1994), which are readily utilized by waterfowl as food items (Wersal et al. 2005). A strong correlation was determined between the density of parrotfeather growth and the presence of mosquito eggs and larvae (Orr and Resh 1989), which may lead to increases in mosquito born diseases that could infect wildlife and humans.

Remarks:
 

References: (click for full references)

Aiken, S.G. 1981. A conspectus of Myriophyllum (Haloragaceae) in North America. Brittonia 33: 57-69.

Anderson, L.C. (curator). 2009. Herbarium Specimen Voucher Data, Florida State University (FSU), Herbarium. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu/.

Anderson, L.W.J. 1993. Aquatic weed problems and management in the western United States and Canada. Chapter 19a In: A.H. Pieterse and K.J. Murphy, eds. Aquatic Weeds, 2nd Edition. Oxford Scientific Press, Oxford, U.K. pp. 371-391.

Anderson, L.W.J., E. Chilton, A. Cofrancesco, E. Glenn, W.T. Haller. 1999. Report of the Salvinia molesta ("Giant Water Fern") Science Advisory Panel.

Aquatic Resources Education Center. 1995. List of Aquatic Plants found in Delaware Ponds 1973-1995. Division of Fish and Wildlife, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, Smyrna, DE.

Banfield, S. 2008. Aquatic Vegetation Management Plan 2008-2012: Meserve Lake, Steuben County. Available http://www.aquaticenhancement.com/AES%20documents/Meserve%202008%20final3.pdf. Accessed 13 September 2011.

Beal, E.O., and J.W. Thieret. 1986. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Kentucky. Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort, KY.

Calflora. 2015. The Calflora Database. http://www.calflora.org/. Accessed on 12/04/2015.

California Department of Fish and Game. 2009. California Aquatic Non-native Organism Database (CANOD). California Department of Fish and Game, Office of Spill Prevention and Response. http://www.dfg.ca.gov/ospr/Science/about_canod.aspx. Created on 03/08/2011. Accessed on 07/20/2011.

Cardwell, A.J., D.W. Hawker, and M. Greenway. 2002. Metal accumulation in aquatic macrophytes from southeast Queensland, Australia. Chemosphere 48: 653-663.

Catarino, L.F., M.T. Ferreira, and I.S. Moreira. 1997. Preferences of grass carp for macrophytes in Iberian drainage channels. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 36:79-83.

Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, University of Florida, IFAS. 2010. Myriophyllum aquaticum. http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/myriophyllum-aquaticum/.

Central Hardwoods Invasive Plant Network. 2010. Joint Aquatic Invasive Species Survey, 2010. University of Georgia, Athens, GA. http://www.rtrcwma.org/chip-n/.

Chester, E.W., B.E. Wofford, and R. Kral. 1997. Atlas of Tennessee Vascular Plants Volume 2. Angiosperms: Dicots. Volume 2. Center for Field Biology, Austin University, Clarksville, TN.

Cilliers, C.J. 1999. Lysathia n.sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a host-specific beetle for control of the aquatic weed Myriohphyllum aquaticum (Haloragaceae) in South Africa. Hydrobiologia 415:271-276.

Cohen, A.N., and J.T. Carlton. 1995. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species in a United States Estuary, A Case Study of the Biological Invasions of the San Francisco Bay and Delta. A report for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC and The National Sea Grant College Program Connecticut Sea Grant. http://nsgl.gso.uri.edu/conn/connt95002/connt95002full.pdf.

Conner, W., C. Sasser, and N. Barker. 1986. Floristics of the Barataria Basin Wetlands, Louisiana. Castanea 51(2):111-128.

Couch, R., and E. Nelson. 1986. Myriophyllum spicatum. Pages 8-18 in Proceedings, First International Symposium on Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) and Related Haloragaceae Species. The Aquatic Plant Management Society, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Couch, R., and E. Nelson. 1991. The exotic Myriophyllums of North America. Pages 5-11 in Proceedings of the National Conference on Enhancing the States' Lake Management Programs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC.

Delwiche, C.F. (curator). 2001. Herbarium Specimen Voucher Data, Norton Brown Herbarium (MARY). University of Maryland, College Park, MD. http://www.nbh.psla.umd.edu/.

Diggs, G.M., Jr., B.L. Lipscomb, and R.J. O'Kennon. 1999. Shinners and Mahler's Illustrated Flora of North Central Texas. Botanical Research Institute of Texas (BRIT), Fort Worth, Texas.

EDDMapS. 2015. Early detection and distribution mapping system. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health.

Edgell, R. 2011. DNR to treat four northeastern lakes for invasive plants this summer. Indiana Department of Natural Resources. Indianapolis, IN. http://www.in.gov/activecalendar_dnr/EventList.aspx?fromdate=1/1/2007&todate=9/30/2015&display=Month&type=public&eventidn=4181&view=EventDetails&information_id=8361. Created on 04/25/2011. Accessed on 09/03/2015.

Engineer Research and Development Center. 2007. Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. (Parrotfeather). In PMIS, Noxious and Nuisance Plant Management Information Systems. U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, MS. Available http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/pmis/pmishelp.htm.

Feiler, U., I. Kirchesch, and P. Heininger. 2004. A new plant-based bioassay for aquatic sediments. Journal of Soils and Sediments 4(4): 261-266.

Fernández, O.A., D.L. Sutton, V.H. Lallana, M.R. Sabbatini, J.H. Irigoyen. 1993. Aquatic weed problems and management in South and Central America. In: A.H. Pieterse, K.J. Murphy, eds. Aquatic Weeds, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. pp. 406-425.

GBIF. 2013. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) Database. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/. Accessed on 05/01/2013.

Gibbons, J. 2011. The Connecticut Agricultural Extension Stattion Aquatic Plant Survey Program. http://ct.gov/caes/cwp/view.asp?a=2799&q=376972&caesNav=|.

Glomski, L. M., A. G. Poovey, and K. D. Getsinger. 2006. Effect of carfentrazone-ethyl on three aquatic macrophytes. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 44:67-69.

Godfrey, R.K., and J.W. Wooten. 1979. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.

Godfrey, R.K., and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.

Gray, C. J., J. D. Madsen, R. M. Wersal, and K. D. Getsinger. 2007. Eurasian watermilfoil and parrotfeather control using carfentrazone-ethyl. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 45:43-46.

Great Lakes Panel on Aquatic Nuisance Species (GLPANS). 2008. Prohibited species in the Great Lakes Region. Report November 2008.

Guillarmod, A. J. 1977. Myriophyllum, an increasing water weed menace for South Africa. South African Journal of Science 73:89-90.

Helton, R.J., and L.H. Hartmann. 1996. Statewide Aquatic Vegetation Survey Summary, 1995 Report. Inland Fisheries Division, District 3-E, Jasper, Texas.

Hoagland, B.W., and R.L. Jones. 1992. Wetland and riparian flora of the Upper Green River Basin, south-central Kentucky. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science 53(3-4):141-153.

Hofstra, D. E., P. D. Champion, and T. M. Dugdale. 2006. Herbicide trials for the control of parrotsfeather. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 44:13-18.

Hough, M.T. 1983. New Jersey Wild Plants. Harmony Press, Harmony, NJ.

Huffman, J.M., and W.S. Judd. 1998. Vascular flora of Myakka River State Park, Sarasota and Manatee Counties, FL. Castanea 63(1):25-.

Hussner, A., C. Meyer, and J. Busch. 2009. The influence of water level and nutrient availability on growth and root system development of Myriophyllum aquaticum. Weed Research 49: 73-80.

Hussner, A., K. Van de Weyer, E.M. Gross, and S. Hilt. 2010. Comments on increasing number and abundance of non-indigenous aquatic macrophyte species in Germany. Weed Research 50: 519-526.

iDigBio. 2015. Integrated Digitized Biocollections (iDigBio). National Resource for Advancing Digitization of Biodiversity Collections (ADBC), Gainesville, FL. https://www.idigbio.org/. Accessed on 07/16/2015.

Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant (IISG). 2011. Sea Grant Database of Aquatic Species Regulations. Available http://www.iiseagrant.org/speciesregs/index1.asp?commonName=parrot%27s+feather. Accessed 25 October 2011.

iMapInvasives. 2012. iMapInvasives Oregon. The Nature Conservancy. http://www.imapinvasives.org/. Accessed on 04/09/2015.

IPANE. 2001. Invasive Plant Atlas of New England (IPANE) at the University of Connecticut online database. http://invasives.eeb.uconn.edu/ipane/.

Jones, Jr., S.B. 1975. Mississippi Flora. IV. Dicotyledon families with aquatic or wetland species. Gulf Research Reports 5(1):7-22.

Knauer, K., S. Mohr, and U. Feiler. 2008. Comparing growth development of Myriophyllum spp. in laboratory and field experiments for ecotoxicological testing. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 15: 322-331.

Lemke, D.E. 1989. Aquatic macrophytes of the Upper San Marcos River, Hays Co., Tesas. Southwestern Naturalist 34(2):289-291.

Les, D.H., and L.J. Mehrhoff. 1999. Introduction of nonindigenous aquatic vascular plants in southern New England: a historical perspective. Biological Invasions 1(2): 281-300.

Loyola University Chicago. 2013. Illinois Database of Aquatic Non-native Species. GISIN, Fort Collins, CO. http://gisin.org/cwis438/websites/GISINDirectory/Occurrence_Result.php?ProjectID=391&WebSiteID=4. Created on 05/13/2015. Accessed on 05/13/2015.

Mabulu, L.Y. 2005. Myriophyllum aquaticum (aquatic plant). Global Invasive Species Database. Available http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=401&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN.

Madsen, J.D. 2010. Invasive Plant Atlas of the MidSouth. Geosystems Research Institute, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS. http://www.gri.msstate.edu/ipams/.

Madsen, J.D., G. Ervin, V. Maddox, & C. Abbott. 2010. Invasive Plant Atlas of the MidSouth. Mississippi State University. http://www.gri.msstate.edu/research/ipams/contactinfo.php.

Marson, D., B. Cudmore, D.A.R. Drake, and N.E. Mandrak. 2009a. Summary of a survey of aquarium owners in Canada. Canadian Manuscript Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2905: iv + 20 pp.

Marson, D., B. Cudmore, D.A.R. Drake, and N.E. Mandrak. 2009b. Summary of a survey of water garden owners in Canada. Canadian Manuscript Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 2906: v + 23 pp.

Martin, C.C. 1999. Invasive species grant proposal, survey of aquatic vegetation in Delaware's public ponds. Department of Natural Resources & Environmental Control, Division of Fish & Wildlife, Smyrna, DE.

Mason, H.L. 1957. A Flora of the Marshes of California. Universtiy of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

Medina, V.F., S.L. Larson, A.E. Bergstedt, and S.C. McCutcheon. 2000. Phyto-removal of trinitrotoluene from water with batch kinetic studies. Water Resources 34(10): 2713-2722.

Mehrhoff, L. 1996. Hawaiian flowering plants checklist. The State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, Honolulu, HI. http://wwwbishophawaiiorg. Created on 03/12/1996.

Michigan State University. 2015. Midwest Invasive Species Information Network (MISIN). Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. http://www.misin.msu.edu/browse/. Accessed on 12/04/2015.

Moreira, I., T. Ferreira, A. Monteiro, L. Catarino, and T. Vasconcelos. 1999. Aquatic weeds and their management in Portugal: insights and the international context. Hydrobiologia 415: 229-234.

Moreira, I, A. Monteira, and T. Ferreira. 1999. Biology and control of parrotfeather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) in Portugal. Ecology, Environment and Conservation 5:171-179.

Muenscher, W.G. 1944. Aquatic plants of the United States. Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, New York.

Nelson, E.N. and R.W. Couch. 1985. History of the introduction and distribution of Myriophyllum aquaticum in North America. Proceeding, 1st International Symposium on watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) and Related Haloragaceae Species. 23-24 July 1985. Vancouver, B.C. pp. 19-26.

Nwoko, C.O. 2010. Trends in phytoremediation of toxic elemental and organic pollutants. African Journal of Biotechnology 9(37): 6010-6016.

Ogden, J. 1974. The reproductive strategy of higher plants. II. The reproductive strategy of Tussilago farfara L. J. Ecol. 62: 291-324.

Orchard, A.E. 1981. A revision of South American Myriophyllum (Haloragaceae), and its repercussions on some Australian and North American species. Brunonia 4:27-65.

Oregon State University. 2016. Oregon Flora Project. Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. http://www.oregonflora.org/atlas.php.

Orr, B.K. and V.H. Resh. 1989. Experimental test of the influence of aquatic macrophyte cover on the survival of Anopheles larvae.  Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 5:579-585.

Orr, B.K., and V.H. Resh. 1992. Influence of Myriophyllum aquaticum cover on Anopheles mosquito abundance, oviposition, and larval microhabitat. Oecologia 90: 474-482.

Parsons, J. 1996. Aquatic Plant Technical Assistance Program: 1995 Acitivity Report. Washington State Dept of Ecology, Environmental Investigations and Laboratory Services Program, Olympia, WA.

Parsons, J. 2005. Annual Washington State Aquatic Plant Survey Database. Washington Department of Ecology . http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/lakes/aquaticplants/index.html#annualsurvey.

Parsons, J. 2007. Washington Aquatic Plant Monitoring Database. Washington Department of Ecology, Lacey, WA. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/lakes/aquaticplants/index.html.

Pfauth, M., and M. Sytsma. 2005. Final Coastal Lakes Aquatic Plant Survey Report. Center for Lakes and Reservoirs, Portland State University. http://www.clr.pdx.edu/publications/files/CoastalLakes.05.pdf.

Pine, R.T. and W.J. Anderson. 1991. Plant preference of triploid grass carp. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 29:80-82.

PLANTS Profile: Myriophyllum aquaticum. http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch. Accessed 2 January 2011.

Polomski, R.F., M.D. Taylor, D.G. Bielenberg, W.C. Bridges, S.J. Klaine, and T. Whitwell. 2009. Nitrogen and phosphorus remediation by three floating aquatic macrophytes in greenhouse-based laboratory-scale subsurface constructed wetlands. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 197: 223-232.

Quayyum, H.A., A.U. Mallik, and P.F. Lee. 1999. Allelopathic potential of aquatic plants associated with wild rice (Zizania palustris): I. Bioassay with plant and lake sediment samples. Journal of Chemical Ecology 25(1): 209-220.

Queensland Herbarium. 2002. Invasive naturalized plants in Southeast Queensland, ranked list. [Extracted from Batianoff, G.N. and D.W. Butler. 2002. Assessment of Invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland. Appendix. Plant Protection Quarterly 17:27-34.] Queensland Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Herbarium, Queensland, Australia. Available http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/register/p00727aa.pdf.

Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, & C. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina .

Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, C.R. Bell, D.E. Rayner, C.A. Smith, and J. Townsend. 1997. South Carolina Plant Atlas. https://sites.google.com/site/sc0heritage0trust/.

Regents of the University of California. 2015. Jepsen online interchange for California floristics. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/interchange.html.

Rice, P.M. 2008. INVADERS Database System. Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812-4824. http://invader.dbs.umt.edu (accessed 28 April 2008).

Richardson, R.J., R.L. Roten, A.M. West, S.L. True, and A.P. Gardner. 2008. Response of selected aquatic invasive weeds to flumioxazin and carfentrazone-ethyl. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 46:154-158.

Rixon, C.A.M., et al. 2005. Invasion risks posed by the aquarium trade and live fish markets on the Laurentian Great Lakes. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 1365-1381.

Rosa, C.S., R.D. Antunes, R.A. Pitelli, and R.L.C.M. Pitelli. 2009. Comparative evaluation of water losses by evapotranspiration in mesocosms colonized by different aquatic weeds. Planta Daninha 27(3): 441-445.

Sebbatini, M.R., K.J. Murphy, and J.H. Irigoyen. 1998. Vegetation-environment relationships in irrigation channel systems of southern Argentina. Aquatic Botany 60:119-133.

Sheppard, A.W., R.H. Shaw, and R. Sforza. 2006. Top 20 environmental weeds for classical biological control in Europe: a review of opportunities, regulations, and other barriers to adoption. Weed Research 46: 93-117.

Simmons, M.P., D.M.E. Ware, and W.J. Hayden. 1995. The vascular flora of the Potomac River watershed of King George County, Virginia. Castanea 60(3):179-209.

Smith, E.B. 1988. An atlas and annotated list of the vascular plants of Arkansas. 2nd edition. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR. www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/arkansas.

Sutton, D.L. 1985. Biology and ecology of Myriophyllum aquaticum. Proceeding, 1st International Symposium on watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) and Related Haloragaceae Species. 23-24 July 1985. Vancouver, B.C. pp. 59-71.

Sytsma, M.D. and L.W.J. Anderson. 1993. Biomass, nitrogen, and phosphorus allocation in parrotfeather (Myriophyllum aquaticum). Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 31:244-248.

Sytsma, M.D., J.R. Cordell, J.W. Chapman, and R.C. Draheim. 2004. Lower Columbia River Aquatic Nonindigenous Species Survey 2001-2004. Final Technical Report: Appendices. United States Coast Guard and the Unites States Fish and Wildlife Service. http://www.clr.pdx.edu/docs/LCRANSFinalReportAppendices.pdf.

Teles, A.N., and A.R. Pinto da Silva. 1975. A “pinheirinha” (Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verde), uma agressiva infestante aquática. Agronomia lusitania 36: 307-323.

Texas Invasive Plant and Pest Council. 2015. Texas Invasives Database. http://www.texasinvasives.org/. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Thomas, R.D., and C.M. Allen. 1998. Atlas of the Vascular Flora of Louisiana Volume III: Dicotyledons Fabaceae - Zygophyllaceae. Volume 3. Bourque Printing, Inc Baton Rouge, LA.

Toft, J.D., J.R. Cordell, and W.C. Fields. 2002. New records of crustaceans (Amphipoda, Isopoda) in the Sacramento/San Joaquin Delta, California, and application of criteria for introduced species. Journal of Crustacean Biology 22(1):190-200.

USDA, NRCS. 1997. The PLANTS database (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70874-4490. http://plants.usda.gov.

U.S. EPA. 2008. Predicting future introductions of nonindigenous species to the Great Lakes. NCEA, Washington, DC. Available http://www.epa.gov/ncea.

University of Florida Herbarium. 2016. Florida Museum of Natural History. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/herbarium/.

Washington State Department of Ecology. 2008. Aquatic Plant Monitoring: Sloughs near Long Beach. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/apps/watersheds/aquaticplants/lakereport.asp.?=230.

Washington State Department of Ecology. 2011. Non-native invasive freshwater plants: Parrotfeather (Myriophyllum aquaticum), Technical Information. Washington State Department of Ecology, Olympia, WA. Available http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/weeds/aqua003.html.

Wersal, R.M., B.R. McMillan, and J.D. Madsen. 2005. Food habits of dabbling ducks during fall migration in a prairie pothole system, Heron Lake, Minnesota. Canadian Field Naturalist 119:546-550.

Wersal, R.M., J.D. Madsen, and M.L. Tagert. 2006. Aquatic plant survey of Ross Barnett Reservoir for 2005. Geosystems Research Institute.

Wersal, R.M. and J.D. Madsen. 2007. Comparison of Imazapyr and Imazamox for Control of Parrotfeather (Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.). Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 45:132-136.

Wersal, R.M. and J.D. Madsen. 2010. Comparison of subsurface and foliar herbicide applications for control of parrotfeather (Myriophyllum aquaticum). Invasive Plant Science and Management 3:262-267.

Wersal, R.M., and J.D. Madsen. 2011. Influences of water column nutrient loading on growth characteristics of the invasive aquatic macrophyte Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. Hydrobiologia 665: 93-105.

Westerdahl, H. E. and K. D. Getsinger. 1988. Aquatic Plant Identification and Herbicide Use Guide; Vol II: Aquatic Plants and Susceptibility to Herbicides. Technical Report A-88-9, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WIDNR). 2011. Aquatic Invasive Species Literature Review. Available http://dnr.wi.gov/invasives/classification/pdfs/Myriophyllum%20aquaticum.pdf. Accessed 25 October 2011.

Xie, D., D. Yu, L. Yu, and C. Liu. 2010. Asexual propagations of introduced exotic macrophytes Elodea nuttallii, Myriophyllum aquaticum, and M. propinquum are improved by nutrient-rich sediments in China. Hydrobiologia 655: 37-47.

Author: Wersal, R.M., E. Baker, J. Larson, K. Dettloff, A.J. Fusaro, and J. Redinger

Revision Date: 8/8/2024

Citation Information:
Wersal, R.M., E. Baker, J. Larson, K. Dettloff, A.J. Fusaro, and J. Redinger, 2024, Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.: U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL, https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=235, Revision Date: 8/8/2024, Access Date: 10/14/2024

This information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information has not received final approval by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and is provided on the condition that neither the USGS nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.

Disclaimer:

The data represented on this site vary in accuracy, scale, completeness, extent of coverage and origin. It is the user's responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations. We highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data.

Citation information: U.S. Geological Survey. [2024]. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database. Gainesville, Florida. Accessed [10/14/2024].

Contact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co-authorship if warranted.

For general information and questions about the database, contact Wesley Daniel. For problems and technical issues, contact Matthew Neilson.