Disclaimer:

The Nonindigenous Occurrences section of the NAS species profiles has a new structure. The section is now dynamically updated from the NAS database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information. Occurrences are summarized in Table 1, alphabetically by state, with years of earliest and most recent observations, and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed. The table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states, years, and drainages selected. References to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the Table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables.

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Common name: Brown Trout

Synonyms and Other Names: Salmo fario, S. lacustris; von Behr trout, Loch Leven trout, German brown trout

Taxonomy: available through www.itis.gov

Identification: Brown Trout has an elongated body that tapers at both ends. The body has a brown or yellow-brown hue with numerous spots below the lateral line. The spots on the upper body are typically black and surrounded by pale halos. Spots on the lower body are red. Head is small and pointed, with a large mouth that extends primarily after the eye. Brown Trout has 3–4 dorsal spines, 3–4 anal spines, and the adipose fin has a red margin. Scott and Crossman (1973); Page and Burr (1991); Jenkins and Burkhead (1994).

Size: 103 cm

Native Range: Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia (Page and Burr 1991).

Alaska	Hawaii	Puerto Rico & Virgin Islands	Guam Saipan

Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUCs) Explained
Interactive maps: Point Distribution Maps

Ecology: Brown Trout are a cold-water species that can inhabit streams, rivers, and lakes in both fresh and brackish waters. It lives in a wide range of depths and velocities, but competes best with other salmonids in faster flowing waters (Armstrong et al. 2003). Some individuals from freshwater tributaries can opt to migrate into the ocean to feed in estuaries and coastal waters, after which they can return to spawn. These individuals are referred to as ‘Sea Trout’ and typically take on a silver coloration.  Brown Trout are commonly found in waters 5–25?, but are known to tolerate water temperatures 0–30? (Elliot and Elliot 2010). The range of Brown Trout in the U.S. is believed to be threatened by warming waters as a symptom of climate change. However, there is evidence that Brown Trout possess mechanisms that allow them to adapt to higher temperatures by increasing its trophic position and increasing energy transfer efficiencies (O’Gorman et al. 2016). Despite this, swimming performance was documented to decrease above 22? (Nudds et al. 2020). Another symptom of climate change is the reduction in ice cover. For Brown Trout, ice cover is associated with increased activity level and reduced stress (relative to no ice cover), the loss of which may negatively impact energy budgets and production (Watz et al. 2015).

This species is a sight-feeder (Greer et al. 2015) with a diverse diet that spans a wide trophic niche. Brown Trout consume benthic invertebrates (Johnson et al. 2017), crustaceans, fish, and can be cannibalistic (Anderson et al. 2016; French et al. 2016; Musseau et al. 2017). Its wide trophic niche is thought to provide greater resilience to changes in the forge base relative to other salmonids and helps prevent the development of a Thiamine Deficiency Complex (TDC) (Futia and Rinchard 2019; Kornis et al. 2020; Leonhardt et al. 2020). Brown Trout are consumed by other piscivorous fish, including Pike, Charr, and Walleye and are a popular fish amongst anglers (Hesthagen et al. 2015; Krueger et al. 2016).

Landlocked populations of Brown Trout mature after 2-4 years, spawn in late fall and early winter in streams and tributaries, and can spawn across multiple years.  Females dig out a nest in gravel beds and males defend the nest until spawning is complete (Greely 1932). Fecundity ranges on average from 200–1000 eggs per female and increases with fish size (Taube 1972). Brown Trout usually live for 5–6 years, but can extend their lifespan to around 12 years by switching to a primarily fish based diet (Behnke 2002).

Means of Introduction: The Brown Trout was first imported to the United States in 1883 from Germany and stocked in the Pere Marquette River, Michigan, by the U.S. Fish Commission (Mather 1889; Courtenay et al. 1984). Since then, the species has been stocked in virtually every state. MacCrimmon et al. (1970) gave dates of first stocking in each state. In most regions the species was first stocked in the late 1800s or early 1900s.

Status: Natural reproduction is low or nonexistent in most states, as such, many states maintain Brown Trout populations by periodic stocking. Rinne (1995) listed this species as established in Arizona, but the species may not be reproducing in open waters (lakes and reservoirs); Rinne apparently used the term 'established' for species that maintain long-term populations through continual or periodic stockings. Courtenay et al. (1984) indicated that introductions failed to establish populations in Florida, Kansas, Ohio, and Oklahoma.

Great Lakes: Widespread, with populations reproducing and overwintering at self-sustaining levels in all five Great Lakes.

Impact of Introduction: Brown Trout have been implicated in reducing native fish populations (including other salmonids) through predation, displacement, and food competition (Taylor et al. 1984). Many studies have been conducted looking at the effects of Brown Trout on Brook Trout Salvelinus fontinalis including Nyman (1970), Fausch and White (1981), Waters (1983), Fausch and White (1986), and DeWald and Wilzbach (1992), to name a few. Taylor et al. (1984) list a number of papers citing the effects of Brown Trout on native fishes. Fausch and White (1981) stated adult Brown Trout displaced adult native Brook Trout from the best habitats in a Michigan stream, and in the northeast in general. Brook Trout are also more susceptible to angling and predation than Brown Trout. Conversely, juvenile Brook Trout are dominant over juvenile Brown Trout of the same size in an artificial stream (Fausch and White 1986). The competitive advantage of the two species may change with size, age, temperature, stream size, or environmental adaptations of different populations (Fausch and White 1986). Wagner et al. (2013) used two-species occupancy models to examine the distribution of Brook and Brown Trout in Pennsylvania streams, and found that predicted occurrence of Brook Trout was lower in the presence of Brown Trout across a wide range of landscape habitat characteristics. McKenna et al. (2013) used  artificial neural network models, ordination, and simulations and found that stocking intensity of Brown Trout into Brook Trout habitat was a major factor in Brook Trout abundance, more so than habitat differences or interspecific interactions. Brown trout have had negative effects on other species of trout and other native fishes throughout the US. For example, Houde et al. (2015a) found that juvenile Brown Trout reduced the survival and growth of juvenile Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) from three populations in artificial stream trials. In California, competition and predation from Brown Trout may have contributed to the decline of the Dolly Varden (S. malma) in the McCloud River (Moyle 1976), and of the Golden Trout (Oncorhynchus aguabonita) in the Kern River (Krueger and May 1991; Courtenay and Williams 1992). Also, Brown Trout have commonly replaced Cutthroat Trout (O. clarkii) in large rivers (Behnke 1992). McAffee (1966) specifically lists Lahontan cutthroats (O. c. henshawi) as being replaced by Brown Trout. Introduced Brown Trout, and other trout species, were likely responsible for the near-extinction of Lahontan cutthroat in Lake Tahoe in the 1940s (McAffee 1966). Although it rarely occurs, Brown Trout is one of the few foreign species able to hybridize with natives (e.g., S. fontinalis) (Brown 1966; Taylor et al. 1984).

Brown Trout have also negatively affected fish species. For example, Brown Trout may have depleted the Modoc Sucker (Catostomus microps), an endangered species, in Rush Creek, Modoc County (Moyle and Marciochi 1975). Because of their predatory nature, Brown Trout were introduced into Flaming Gorge Reservoir to reduce populations of the Utah Chub (Gila atraria) (Teuscher and Luecke 1996).  Competition with and predation by nonnative species (i.e., Catostomus sp., Creek Chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), Redside Shiner (Richardsonius balteatus), Burbot (Lota lota), Brown Trout (Salmo trutta), and Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush)) limit populations of the rare Bluehead Sucker (Catostomus discobolus) (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2010). Brown Trout occupy similar habitat types as, and predate upon, Roundtail Chub (Gila robusta) (a species of conservation concern) in Wyoming lakes (Laske et al. 2012). Nonnative predators, including Brown Trout, have been shown to reduce the abundance and diversity of native prey species in several Pacific Northwest rivers (Hughes and Herlihy 2012).

Remarks: The state of California has attempted to eradicate Brown Trout in some areas in order to preserve native Golden Trout O. aguabonita (Taylor et al. 1984; Moyle, personal communication). Tyus et al. (1982) mapped the distribution of the Brown Trout in the upper Colorado basin. MacCrimmon and Marshall (1968) and MacCrimmon et al. (1970) summarized information on worldwide distribution and introductions. 

References: (click for full references)

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Other Resources:
Salmo trutta (Global Invasive Species Database)

Distribution in Illinois - ILNHS

Fishes of Wisconsin (Becker)

Great Lakes Waterlife

Author: Fuller, P., J. Larson, A. Fusaro, T.H. Makled, M. Neilson, and A. Bartos

Peer Review Date: 4/8/2022

This information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information has not received final approval by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and is provided on the condition that neither the USGS nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.