Disclaimer:

The Nonindigenous Occurrences section of the NAS species profiles has a new structure. The section is now dynamically updated from the NAS database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information. Occurrences are summarized in Table 1, alphabetically by state, with years of earliest and most recent observations, and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed. The table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states, years, and drainages selected. References to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the Table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables.




Pistia stratiotes
Pistia stratiotes
(water lettuce)
Plants
Cryptogenic

Copyright Info
Pistia stratiotes L.

Common name: water lettuce

Synonyms and Other Names: water-lettuce, water-cabbage, river-lettuce, water-bonnet, shell-flower

Taxonomy: available through www.itis.govITIS logo

Identification: Pistia stratiotes is a free-floating aquatic macrophyte that resembles an open head of lettuce (Ramey 2001a,b, EPPO 2017). It is also a perennial moncotyledon (Ramey 2001a,b). P. stratiotes tend to form small colonies and can be found in dense floating mats (EPPO 2017). Morphological variation is strongly influenced by environmental conditions and population density (Thompson 2007). P. stratiotes is only member of the Pistia genus worldwide, and so it is unlikely to be confused with other species (Cahill et al. 2018). Several characteristics help distinguish P. stratiotes (Ramey 2001a,b, Langeland and Burks 1999, CABI 2014, Cahill et al. 2018):


Leaves: gray-green, about 10-20 cm long, widest at the apex, spongy near the base, with dense white hairs, 7-15 prominent parallel veins, and arranged in rosettes (i.e. circular leaf arrangement).
Stolons (i.e. stem or runner): arise from leaf axis, up to 70 cm long, and entangle to create floating mats.
Roots: covered with fine root hairs which give them a feather-like appearance, dense, and hang unbranched about 50 cm below the water.
Flowers: inconspicuous and clustered on small, fleshy stalks that are nearly hidden in the leaf axils. Flowers are single sexed with male: 3-9 flowers whorled above a single female flower.
Fruit: green berry with many seeds.

Size: Rosette generally 6 to 30 cm in diameter (Godfrey and Wooten 1981), 15 cm length (Langeland and Burks 1999).

Native Range: The species is pantropical, occurring on all continents except Antarctica (Adebayo et al. 2011). The center of origin for P. stratiotes is unknown. Fossil records for this species can be found around the globe (Stoddard 1989). Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics depict the plant and Greek botanists Dioscorides and Theophrastus described the plant floating on the Nile River more than 2,000 years ago, indicating African origin (Stoddard 1989). Pistia stratiotes in Brazil and Argentina host a large number of co-evolved specialist insect herbivores suggesting a South American origin (Center et al. 2002). In North America, both John and William Bartram described P. stratiotes as early as 1765 and 1773, respectively, along the St. Johns River in Florida, up to 300 river km upstream of the ocean inlet where any ballast material would likely have been deposited from trans-oceanic ships (Bartram and Harper 1942; Bartram and Harper 1943). Since plants were found so far upstream from known seaports, a rationale for Florida nativity has been suggested (Evans 2013). Late Pleistocene/early Holocene fossil records for this species in Florida lend support for this contention (Stoddard 1989; Evans 2013).

Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUCs) Explained
Interactive maps: Point Distribution Maps

Nonindigenous Occurrences:

Table 1. States with nonindigenous occurrences, the earliest and latest observations in each state, and the tally and names of HUCs with observations†. Names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records. The list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of Pistia stratiotes are found here.

StateFirst ObservedLast ObservedTotal HUCs with observations†HUCs with observations†
AL200220246Lower Conecuh; Lower Coosa; Middle Alabama; Middle Chattahoochee-Walter F; Upper Alabama; Upper Black Warrior
AZ193620222Upper Santa Cruz; Yuma Desert
AR200820192Illinois; Lake Conway-Point Remove
CA1895202213Imperial Reservoir; Los Angeles; Lower Colorado; Lower Sacramento; Middle San Joaquin-Lower Chowchilla; Newport Bay; Salton Sea; San Diego; Santa Clara; Santa Maria; Santa Monica Bay; Seal Beach; Southern Mojave-Salton Sea
CO200120011Upper Arkansas
DE199320172Brandywine-Christina; Broadkill-Smyrna
FL1765202338Alafia; Apalachee Bay-St. Marks; Aucilla; Big Cypress Swamp; Caloosahatchee; Cape Canaveral; Crystal-Pithlachascotee; Daytona-St. Augustine; Everglades; Florida Southeast Coast; Hillsborough; Kissimmee; Lake Okeechobee; Lower Ochlockonee; Lower St. Johns; Lower Suwannee; Manatee; Myakka; Nassau; Oklawaha; Peace; Perdido; Santa Fe; Sarasota Bay; South Atlantic-Gulf Region; Southern Florida; St. Andrew-St. Joseph Bays; St. Marys; Suwannee; Suwannee; Tampa Bay; Tampa Bay; Upper St. Johns; Upper Suwannee; Vero Beach; Waccasassa; Western Okeechobee Inflow; Withlacoochee
GA198120233Cumberland-St. Simons; Lower Savannah; South Atlantic-Gulf Region
HI193820235Hawaii; Kauai; Maui; Molokai; Oahu
ID200720121Bruneau
IL198220216Apple-Plum; Chicago; Des Plaines; Lower Fox; Upper Fox; Upper Illinois
IN201620161Little Calumet-Galien
IA201920192Middle Des Moines; West Fork Cedar
KS199920072Independence-Sugar; Lower Cottonwood
LA1958202217Amite; Atchafalaya - Vermilion; Bayou Teche; Calcasieu-Mermentau; East Central Louisiana Coastal; Eastern Louisiana Coastal; Lake Maurepas; Lake Maurepas; Louisiana Coastal; Lower Mississippi; Lower Mississippi Region; Lower Mississippi-Lake Maurepas; Lower Red-Ouachita; Mermentau; Tangipahoa; Vermilion; West Central Louisiana Coastal
MD200320204Gunpowder-Patapsco; Lower Potomac; Patuxent; Severn
MI2011202213Black-Macatawa; Clinton; Detroit; Huron; Kalamazoo; Kawkawlin-Pine; Lake Erie; Lake St. Clair; Lower Grand; Muskegon; Ottawa-Stony; Raisin; Upper Grand
MN200920173Buffalo-Whitewater; Rush-Vermillion; Twin Cities
MS199220175Deer-Steele; Lower Big Black; Middle Pearl-Strong; Mississippi Coastal; Tibbee
MO193920072Lower Missouri-Moreau; Meramec
NJ201020202Mid Atlantic Region; Raritan
NM202220221Rio Grande-Albuquerque
NY200020195Long Island; Lower Hudson; Niagara River; Southern Long Island; Upper Susquehanna
NC200320214Albemarle; New River; Northeast Cape Fear; Upper Neuse
OH2000202412Ashtabula-Chagrin; Black-Rocky; Cuyahoga; Lake Erie; Little Miami; Little Muskingum-Middle Island; Lower Great Miami, Indiana, Ohio; Lower Scioto; Middle Ohio-Laughery; Tuscarawas; Upper Great Miami, Indiana, Ohio; Upper Scioto
PA201620205Brandywine-Christina; Kiskiminetas; Lake Erie; Lehigh; Lower West Branch Susquehanna
PR188520114Cibuco-Guajataca; Culebrinas-Guanajibo; Eastern Puerto Rico; Southern Puerto Rico
RI200120032Narragansett; Pawcatuck River
SC199120093Carolina Coastal-Sampit; Cooper; Waccamaw
TX1927202324Austin-Oyster; Austin-Travis Lakes; Buffalo-San Jacinto; East San Antonio Bay; Lower Brazos; Lower Colorado; Lower Colorado-Cummins; Lower Devils; Lower Guadalupe; Lower Neches; Lower Nueces; Lower Rio Grande; Lower Trinity-Kickapoo; Lower West Fork Trinity; Middle Guadalupe; Navasota; Sabine Lake; San Marcos; South Laguna Madre; Spring; Toledo Bend Reservoir; West Fork San Jacinto; West Galveston Bay; White Oak Bayou
VI187920122St. Croix; St. John-St. Thomas
VA202120211Middle Potomac-Catoctin
WI200520157Buffalo-Whitewater; Castle Rock; La Crosse-Pine; Lake Winnebago; Middle Rock; Milwaukee; Upper Fox

Table last updated 12/13/2024

† Populations may not be currently present.


Ecology: HABITAT: Pistia stratiotes is an aquatic, floating perennial plant that is native to tropical and subtropical lakes (Pieterse 1981). Distribution is limited by sensitivity to cold temperatures. However, overwintering by seeds could account for population recurrence in temperate regions with appropriate substrate and hydrologic conditions. This species most commonly inhabits slow moving water - ponds, lakes, swamps, irrigation canals, or ornamental ponds.

Parameter description Numeric value Reference
Temperature tolerance 15° C (59 °F) - 35° C (95 °F) Rivers 2002
Optimal germination temperature 20 °C - 25 °C Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001
Thermal minimum for seeds 4 °C and a few weeks in ice at –5 °C; Pieterse 1981
Salinity tolerance >20mM NaCl Vázquez et al. 2021

 

FOOD WEB: This species is an autotroph. It serves as a food source for many invertebrate species and is commonly associated with the salvinia stem-borer moth (Samea multiplicalis), the leafhopper (Draeculacephala inscripta), and the aphid (Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae) (Dray et al. 1988). The West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) is also known to consume P. stratiotes in the southern coastal United States (Allen and Keith 2015).

LIFE HISTORY: Pistia stratiotes reproduces asexually and sexually. It can spread rapidly by vegetative fragmentation from offshoots on short, brittle stolons. Also, seed production is now considered a major method of reproduction and dispersal (Dray and Center 1989a,b). P. stratiotes possess both male and female flowers. Seeds are wind and insect pollinated and mature 30 days after fertilization (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001). Seeds can disperse by water and sink into the mud or stream bed, and germinate in light at temperatures above 20 °C. Seedlings float to the surface once the primary leaf has developed. Each plant produces several stolons that are about 60 cm long that terminate in rosettes and can become fragmented to produce new plants.

Means of Introduction: The origin of Pistia stratiotes is contentious. Some argue the species is native to North America due to fossil evidence (Evans 2013), while others agree it was dispersed by transcontinental bird migrations (Stoddard 1989) or by dry ballast during early European colonization of North America (Stuckey and Les 1984; Schmitz et al. 1993; Dray and Center 2002).  

Pistia stratiotes was sold through aquarium and pond supply dealers, both online and in retail garden centers (Rixon et al. 2005); it is still offered for sale online and in several states (Rebecca Howard, USGS, pers. comm.). New introductions are probably the result of improper disposal of ornamental pond plants or waters, or when ponds adjacent to local water bodies overflow (Adebayo et al. 2011).

Status: Established in southern states (Alabama, Arizona, California, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas) where plants may overwinter and also germinate from seed (Dray and Center 1989). Plants north of the Gulf states (Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Wisconsin) likely do not overwinter, and are either extirpated, eradicated, or survive by seed production; the exception being Idaho where populations have established in a hot spring-fed river (Tom Woolf, ID Dept. of Ag., pers.comm.).

Impact of Introduction:
Summary of species impacts derived from literature review. Click on an icon to find out more...

EcologicalEconomicHuman HealthOther




Pistia stratiotes can have detrimental effects on the environment and other species due to its production of allelochemicals, which inhibits algae growth thus resulting in food web disruption and water chemistry changes (Aliotta et al., 1991). Additionally, it causes high evapotranspiration rates (Sharma, 1984) and forms dense mats that reduce light availability for submerged macrophytes and planktonic algae (Attionu, 1976). These factors, along with its impact on water temperature, pH, stratification, and oxygen levels, can lead to adverse consequences for native plants, fish, and wildlife (Attionu, 1976; Šajna et al., 2007; Sridhar and Sharma, 1986, FL DEP 2007). Pistia stratiotes has outcompeted other species where it has been introduced. Three years after P. stratiotes was first observed in Slovenia, it had covered the whole water surface and populations of native freshwater plants, Ceratophyllum demersum, Myriophyllum spicatum, Najas marina, and Trapa natans, had declined (Šajna et al. 2007).

Pistia stratiotes is among the world’s worst weeds (Holm 1991) and has received significant media attention (e.g. de la Cruz 2014, Spear 2014).

Pistia stratiotes mats provide habitat for disease carrying mosquitoes, such as malaria vectors Anopheles and Mansonia (FL DEP 2007, Lounibos and Dewald 1989, Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001, Rejmankova et al. 1991).

Pistia stratiotes causes damage to infrastructure. Infestations of this species can block waterways, reducing the efficiency of irrigation and hydroelectric power (Howard and Harley 1998). Dense mats of P. straiotes reduce water flow, damage flood control structures, and can create dams against bridges (FL DEP 2007). P. stratiotes may impact recreation, as it interferes with navigation and fishing (Labrada and Fornasari 2002). Florida spent about $1.4 million dollars in 2005-2006 to treat P. stratiotes (FL DEP 2007).

Pistia stratiotes is also used in traditional medicine for its therapeutic properties (Tripathi et al. 2010, Saddam et al. 2018, Abubakar et al. 2020).

Research has been conducted to utilize this species for biofuels (Lu et al. 2010, Mishima et al. 2008).

Pistia stratiotes is a potential candidate for the removal of heavy metals from contaminated water (Odjegba and Fasidi 2004, Ali et al. 2020, Leblebici et al. 2019, Vieira et al. 2019). Numerous experiments P. stratiotes could be used to remediate runoff from a variety of sources including nursery, greenhouse operations, domestic sewage, textile factories, rice mills, paper mills, and sugar mills  (Sridhar and Sharma 1980, Polomski et al. 2009,  Kumar et al. 2018, Ferreira et al. 2019, Schwantes et al. 2019, Kumar et al. 2020,Ekanayake et al. 2021). Several experimental trials indicate that P. stratiotes can dissipate herbicides, and so this plant could decontaminate waters near agricultural areas (Barchanska et al. 2019, Escoto et al. 2019, Alencar et al. 2020, Alonso et al. 2021).

References: (click for full references)

Adam, M.D., M.C. Colwell, J. Marencik, and M.A. Pfister. 2001. 2000 Summary report of Grandwood Park Lake - Lake County, Illinois. Lake Co Health Department Environmenal Health Services Lakes Management Unit, Waukegan, IL. http://www.co.lake.il.us/health/pdfs/ehs/lakereports/grndwood.pdf.

Adam, M., C.L. Brant, M. Colwell, J. Marencik, and M. Pfister. 2004. 2003 Summary report of Flint Lake - Lake County, Illinois. Lake Co Health Department Environmenal Health Services Lakes Management Unit, Waukegan, IL. http://www.co.lake.il.us/health/pdfs/ehs/lakereports/FlintLake.pdf.

Adebayo, A.A., E. Briski, O. Kalaci, M. Hernandez, S. Ghabooli, B. Beric, F.T. Chan, A. Zhan, E. Fifield, T. Leadley, and H.J. MacIsaac. 2011. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) in the Great Lakes: playing with fire? Aquatic Invasions 6(1):91-96.

Aliotta, G., P. Monaco, G. Pinto, A. pollio, and L. Previtera. 1991. Potential allelochemicals from Pistia stratiotes L. Journal of Chemical Ecology 17(11): 2223-2234.

Anderson, L.C. (curator). 2001. Herbarium Specimen Voucher Data, Florida State University (FSU), Herbarium. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu/.

Aquatic Resources Education Center. 1995. List of Aquatic Plants found in Delaware Ponds 1973-1995. Division of Fish and Wildlife, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, Smyrna, DE.

Attionu, R.H. 1976. Some effects of waters lettuce (Pistia stratiotes, L.) on its habitat. Hydrobiologia 50(3): 245-254.

Aurand, D. 1982. Nuisance Aquatic Plants and Aquatic Plant Management Programs in the United States. Volume 2, Southeast. The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA.

Balgie, S., W. Crowell, S. Enger, D. Hoverson, J. Hunt, G. Montz, A. Pierce, J. Rendall, R. Rezanka, L. Skinner D. Swanson, C. Welling, and H. Wolf. 2010. Invasive species of aquatic plants and wild animals in Minnesota: annual report for 2009. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN.

Bartram, J., and F. Harper. 1942. Diary of a journey through the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida from July 1, 1765, to April 10, 1766. Volume 33 part 1. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

Bartram, W., and F. Harper. 1943. Travels in Georgia, and Florida, 1773-74. A report to Dr. John Fothergill. Volume 33 part 2. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

Calflora. 2015. The Calflora Database. http://www.calflora.org/. Accessed on 12/04/2015.

Center, T.D., F.A. Dray, Jr., G.P. Jubinsky and M.J. Grodowitz. 2002. Insects and other arthropods that feed on aquatic and wetland plants. USDA/ARS Technical Bulletin.

Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. 2015. EDDMapS: Early detection and distribution mapping system. The University of Georgia, Tifton, GA. http://www.eddmaps.org.

Cilliers, C.J. 1991. Biological control of water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes (Araceae), in South Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 37(1-3): 225-229.

Cochran, P.A., S. Pociask, H. Warthesen, and N. Proulx. 2006. Noteworthy collection Minnesota. The Michigan Botanist 45: 210-213.

Conover, M. 2007. The Quarterly Newsletter. Long Island Botanical Society. Aquebogue, NY. 2007 (Winter):8 pp. www.sciencenterprise.org/libsnewsletters/v17n1.pdf. Accessed on 07/01/2008.

Consortium of California Herbaria. 2014. Consortium of California Herbaria. Consortium of California Herbaria, Berkeley, CA. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/4fa894f4-b6c6-4ec0-b816-9bb03b3ca106. Created on 01/10/2014. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

de la Cruz, A. 2014. Va CNA contra la plaga del ‘repollito’. Conexion Total August 12, 2014. Available at http://conexiontotal.mx/2014/08/12/va-cna-contra-la-plaga-del-repollito/. Accessed 22 August 2014.

Diggs, G.M., Jr., B.L. Lipscomb, and R.J. O'Kennon. 1999. Shinners and Mahler's Illustrated Flora of North Central Texas. Botanical Research Institute of Texas (BRIT), Fort Worth, Texas.

Dray, Jr., F.A., and T.D. Center. 1989a. Seed production by Pistia stratiotes L. (water lettuce) in the United States. Aquatic Botany 33(1-2):155-160.

Dray, Jr., F.A., and T.D. Center. 1989b. Waterlettuce seeds in the U.S. Aquatics 11(4):18-21. http://www.fapms.org/aquatics/issues/1989winter.pdf.

Dray, Jr., F.A., and T.D. Center. 1992. Biological control of Pistia stratiotes L. (waterlettuce) using Neohydronomus affinis Hustache (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Technical Report A-92-1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

Dray, Jr., F.A., and T.D. Center. 2002. Waterlettuce. Pages 65-78 in Van Driesche, R., B. Blossey, M. Hoddle, S. Lyon, and R. Reardon, eds. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States, USDA Forest Service Publication FHTET-2002-04. USDA Forest Service. Morgantown, WV.

Dressler, R.L., D.W. Hall, K.D. Perkins, and N.H. Williams. 1987. Identification manual for wetland plant species of Florida. 1st edition. Vascular Plant Herbarium, Florida State Museum and UF/IFAS, Gainesville, FL.

Dupre, S. 2011. An assessment of early detection monitoring and risk assessments for aquatic invasive species in the Great Lakes- St.Lawrence Basin. Prepared for the IJC Work Group on Aquatic Invasive Species Rapid Response. Available at http://meeting.ijc.org/sites/default/files/workgroups/RAandMonitoringJuly29.pdf. Accessed 20 August 2014.

Evans, J.M. 2013. Pistia stratiotes L. in the Florida Peninsula: biogeographic evidence and conservation implications of native tenure for an ‘invasive’ aquatic plant. Conservation and Society 11(3):233-246.

Falck, M., S. Garske, and D. Olson. 2010. Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission Invasive Species Program 2009. Administrative Report 10-11. Available at http://www.glifwc.org/Reports/Administrative%20Report%2010-11.pdf. Accessed 20 August 2014.
 
FL DEP (Florida Department of Environmental Protection). 2007. Status of the Aquatic Plant Maintenance Program in Florida Public Waters: Annual Report Fiscal Year 2005-2006. Bureau of Invasive Plant Management. Available at http://www.floridainvasives.org/toolbox/reports/aquaticsfy05-06.pdf. Accessed 20 August 2014.

Freeman, C.C. 2000. Vascular plants new to three states in the central United States. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 103(1/2):51-54. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3627937.

GISD (Global Invasive Species Database). 2005. Pistia stratiotes (aquatic plant). Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. Available at http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=285&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN. Accessed 20 August 2014.

Godfrey, R.K., and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Southeastern United States, dicotyledons. University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

Great Lakes Panel on Aquatic Nuisance Species. 2012. Prohibited species in the Great Lakes region. Available at http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/wrd-ais-regulated-species_390473_7.pdf. Accessed 11 August 2014.

Grodowitz, M. J., W. Johnson, and L. D. Nelson. 1992. Status of biological control of waterlettuce in Louisiana and Texas using Insects. Miscellaneous Paper A-92-3. U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

Hall, J.B., and D.U.U. Okali. 1974. Phenology and productivity of Pistia stratiotes L. on the Volta Lake, Ghana. Journal of Applied Ecology 11(2): 709-725.

Haller, W.T, D.L. Sutton, W.C. Barlowe,. 1974. Effects of salinity on growth of several aquatic macrophytes. Ecology 55(4):891-894.

Hansen, B.F. (curator). 1999. Herbarium specimen voucher data, University of South Florida Herbarium (USF). University of South Florida, Tampa, FL. http://www.florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/.

Harley, K.L.S. 1990. Production of viable seeds by water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes L. in Australia. Aquatic Botany 36: 277-279

Harley, K.L.S., R.C. Kassulke, D.P.A. Sands, and M.D. Day. 1990. Biological control of water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes (Araceae) by Neohydronomus affinis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Entomophaga 35(3): 363-374.

Hartmann, L.H. 1994. Prohibited plants on increase in Southeast Texas. Texas Aquatic Plant Management Society, Inc. http://www.tapms.org/newsletter/.

Helton, R.J., and L.H. Hartmann. 1996. Statewide Aquatic Vegetation Survey Summary, 1995 Report. Inland Fisheries Division, District 3-E, Jasper, Texas.

Hodgson, W. (curator). 2015. Desert Botanical Garden Herbarium (DES). Desert Botanical Garden, Phoenix, AZ. http://www.dbg.org/.

Holm, L.G. 1991. The world’s worst weeds: distribution and biology. Krieger Publishing Co.

Howard, G.W., and K.L.S. Harley. 1998. How do floating aquatic weeds affect wetland conservation and development? How can these effects be minimized? Wetland Ecology and Management 5: 215-225.

Hussner, A., P. Heidbuechel, and S. Heiligtag. 2014. Vegetative overwintering and viable seed production explain the establishment of invasive Pistia stratiotes in the thermally abnormal Erft River (North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). Aquatic Botany 119: 28-32.

Kasselmann, C. 1995. Aquarienpflanzen. Eger Ulmer GMBH & Co., Stuttgart.

Labrada, R., and L. Fornasari. 2002. Management of problematic aquatic weeds in Africa. FAO Efforts and Achievements During the Period  1991-2001. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Langeland, K.A., and K.C. Burks (eds.). 1998. Identification and biology of non-native plants found in Florida's natural areas. 1st edition. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.

Lemke, D.E. 1989. Aquatic macrophytes of the Upper San Marcos River, Hays Co., Texas. Southwestern Naturalist 34(2):289-291.

Louisiana State University Herbarium. 2010. Louisiana State University Herbarium - Vascular Plants. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/56e9c560-bd2a-11dd-b15e-b8a03c50a862. Created on 05/03/2010. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Lounibos, L.P., and R.L. Escher. 1985. Mosquitoes associated with water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) in southeastern Florida. The Florida Entomologist 68(1):169-178.

Lounibos, L.P., and L.B. Dewald. 1989. Oviposition site selection by Mansonia mosquitos on Water Lettuce. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Lu, Q., Z.L. He, D.A. Graetz, P.J. Stoffela, X. Yang. 2010. Phytoremediation to remove nutrients and improve eutrophic stormwaters using water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 17(1): 84-96.

Madsen, J.D. 2010. Invasive Plant Atlas of the MidSouth. Geosystems Research Institute, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS. http://www.gri.msstate.edu/ipams/.

Mehrhoff, L. 1996. Hawaiian flowering plants checklist. The State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, Honolulu, HI. http://wwwbishophawaiiorg. Created on 03/12/1996.

MI DEQ (Michigan Department of Environmental Quality). 2013. Michigan’s Aquatic Invasive Species State Management Plan 2013 Update: Prevention, Detection, and Management in Michigan Waters. Avaiable at http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/wrd-ais-smp-public-review_380166_7.pdf. Accessed 20 August 2014.

Michigan State University. 2015. Midwest Invasive Species Information Network (MISIN). Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. http://www.misin.msu.edu/browse/. Accessed on 12/04/2015.

Mishima, D., M. Kuniki, K. Sei, S. Soda, M. Ike, and M. Fujita. 2008. Ethanol production from candidate energy crops: Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.). Bioresource Technology 99: 2495-2500.

Mississippi Museum of Natural Science. 2016. Mississippi Museum of Natural Science Herbarium (MMNS). Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks, Jackson, MS. https://www.mdwfp.com/seek-study/bio-collections/plants.aspx.

Missouri Botanical Garden. 2007. Missouri Botanical Garden. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/7bd65a7a-f762-11e1-a439-00145eb45e9a. Created on 04/02/2007. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Naturalis Biodiversity Center. 2013. Naturalis Biodiversity Center (NL) - Botany Leiden. Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, Netherlands. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/10791a2e-9980-49b6-b83e-86643d609b02. Created on 12/23/2013. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Nelson, J.B. 1993. Noteworthy Collections: South Carolina. Castanea 58(1):59-60.

New York Botanical Garden. 2015. The New York Botanical Garden Herbarium (NY) - Vascular Plant Collection. The New York Botanical Garden, New York, NY. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/d415c253-4d61-4459-9d25-4015b9084fb0. Created on 06/18/2015. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Parsons, W.T., and E.G. Cuthbertson. 2001. Noxious Weeds of Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, VIC, Australia.

Petr, T. 2000. Interactions between fish and aquatic macrophytes in inland waters. A review. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 396, Rome, FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/x7580e/x7580e00.htm.

Philip, C. 1930. Studies on the transmission of experimental yellow fever by mosquitos other than Aedes. American Journal of Tropical Medicine 10(1): 1-16.

Pieterse, A.H., L. De Lange and L. Verhagen. 1981. A study on certain aspects of seed germination and growth of Pistia stratiotes L. Acta. Bot. Neerl. 30(1/2): 47-57.

Potter, D. (director), and E. Dean (curator). 2015. U.C. Davis Center for Plant Diversity. The Regents of the University of California, Davis, CA. http://herbarium.ucdavis.edu/collections.html. Accessed on 04/11/2016.

Ramey, V. 2001a. "Pistia stratiotes - Non-Native Invasive Aquatic Plants in the United States." Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, University of Florida and Sea Grant.  August 2001. Accessed 12/07/2007.<http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/seagrant/pisstr2.html#pauthor>.

Ramey, V. 2001b. Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotesi). Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, University of Florida, IFAS. Available at http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/node/328. Accessed 20 August 2014.

Rejmankova, E., H.M. Savage, M. Rejmanek, J.I. Arrendondo-Jimenez, and D.R. Roberts. 1991. Multivariate analysis of relationships between habitats, environmental factors, and occurrence of Anopheline mosquito larvae Anopheles albimanus and A. pseudopunctipennis in southern Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of Applied Ecology 28: 827-841.

Regents of the University of California. 2015. Jepsen online interchange for California floristics. University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley. http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/interchange.html.

Rivers, L. 2002. Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes). University of Florida and Sea Grant. Accessed 12/04/2007. <http://www.iisgcp.org/EXOTICSP/waterlettuce.htm>

Roe, G. 2015. New invasive species found in La Crosse pond. News 19 WXOW.com. La Crosse, WI. http://www.wxow.com/story/30029104/2015/09/14/new-invasive-species-found-in-la-crosse-pond. Created on 09/14/2015. Accessed on 09/15/2015.

Rixon, C.A.M., I.C. Duggan, N.M.N. Bergeron, A. Ricciardi, and H.J. MacIsaac. 2005. Invasion risks posed by the aquarium trade and live fish markets on the Laurentian Great Lakes. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 1365-1381.

Šajna, N., M. Haler, S. Škornik, and M. Kaligariç. 2007. Survival and expansion of Pistia stratiotes L. in a thermal stream in Slovenia. Aquatic Botany 87: 75-79.

Schmitz, D.C., J.D. Schardt, A.J. Leslie, F.A. Dray, Jr., J.A. Osborne, and B.V. Nelson. 1993. The ecological impact and management history of three invasive alien aquatic plant species in Florida. Pages 173-174 in McKnight, B, ed. Biological pollution: the control and impact of invasive exotic species. Indiana Academy of Science. Indianapolis, IN.

Sculthorpe, C.D. 1967. The biology of aquatic vascular plants. Edward Arnold, London, UK.

Sharma, B.M. 1984. Ecophysiological studies on Water Lettuce in a polluted lake. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 22:17-21.

Smith, L. 1978. Development of the emergent vegetation in a tropical marsh (Kawainui, I'ohu). Newsletter of the Hawaiian Botanical Society. 17 (1/2): 2-27

Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. 2015. Botany Collections. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. http://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/botany/. Accessed on 07/09/2015.

South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. 2007. South Carolina Aquatic Invasive Species Management Plan. South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Columbia, SC. http://www.dnr.sc.gov/water/envaff/aquatic/aisfiles/draftscmgmtplan8092007.pdf.

Spear, K. 2014. Water lettuce: Florida villain or native? Orlando Sentinel, May 24, 2014. Available at http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2014-05-24/news/os-water-lettuce-dispute-20140524_1_lettuce-plant-florida-museum. Accessed 22 August 2014.

Sridhar, M.K.C., and B.M. Sharma. 1980. Pistia stratiotes L. in Nigerian waters. Experientia 36: 953-955.

Stoddard, III., A.A. 1989. The phytogeography and paleofloitics of Pistia stratiotes L. Aquatics 11(3):21-24. http://www.fapms.org/aquatics/issues/1989fall.pdf.

Stuckey, R.L., and D.H. Les. 1984. Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) recorded from Florida in Bartrams' travels, 1765-74. Aquaphyte. Gainesville,FL. 4 (2):6.

Texas A&M University Bioinformatics Working Group. 2007. Digital Flora of Texas Herbarium Specimen Browser - Version II. http://botany.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/bwgpost1.htm. Accessed on 03/06/2007.

Texas Invasive Plant and Pest Council. 2015. Texas Invasives Database. http://www.texasinvasives.org/. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Thomas M. Pullen Herbarium. 2005. Thomas M. Pullen Herbarium. University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS. http://www.herbarium.olemiss.edu/. Accessed on 08/25/2015.

Thomas, R.D., and C.M. Allen. 1993. Atlas of the Vascular Flora of Louisiana. Vol I: Ferns and Fern Allies, Conifers, and Monocotyledons. Volume 1. Moran Colorgraphic Printing, Baton Rouge, LA.

Thompson, S.A. 2007. Araceae. In: Flora of North America. Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico. 12+ vols. New York and Oxford. Vol. 22.

University of Alabama Biodiversity and Systematics. 2007. Herbarium (UNA). University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/84f9770e-f762-11e1-a439-00145eb45e9a. Created on 04/03/2007. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

University of Colorado Museum of Natural History. 2007. Specimen Database of Colorado Vascular Plants. University of Colorado Museum of Natural History, Boulder, CO. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/86221faa-f762-11e1-a439-00145eb45e9a. Created on 07/09/2007. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

University of Connecticut. 2011. CONN. University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/5288946d-5fcf-4b53-8fd3-74f4cc6b53fc. Created on 09/08/2011. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

University of Kansas Biodiversity Institute. 2008. R. L. McGregor Herbarium Vascular Plants Collection. University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/95c938a8-f762-11e1-a439-00145eb45e9a. Created on 09/23/2008. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Upadhyay, R.K., and S.K. Panda. 2005. Salt tolerance of two aquatic macrophytes, Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta. Biologia Plantarium 49(1): 157-159.

Valentine, J. M. 1976. Plant succession after saw-grass mortality in southwestern Louisiana. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference. SE Assoc. Fish and Wildlife Agencies, 24-27 October 1976, Jackson, MS. :634-640

Venema, P. 2001. Fast spread of water lettuce Pistia stratiotes L. around Meppel. Gorteria 27: 133-135.

Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst, and D.H. Lorence. 2005. Flora of the Hawaiian Islands website. Smithsonian Institution & National Tropical Botanical Garden. http://ravenel.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/index.htm (13 February 2008).

Wheeler, G.S., T.K. Van., and T.D. Center. 1998. Herbivore adaptions to a low-nutrient food: weed biological control specialist Spodoptera pectinicornis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) fed the floating aquatic plant Pistia stratiotes. Environmental Entomology 27(4): 993-1000.

Wilcox, D.A., and T.H. Whillans. 1999. Techniques for restoration of disturbed coastal wetlands of the Great Lakes. Wetlands 19(4):835-857.

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WI DNR). 2010. Aquatic Invasives Data and Maps. Wisconsin Dept of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin. http://dnr.wi.gov/lakes/invasives/BySpecies.aspx.

Yale University Peabody Museum. 2009. Botany Division, Yale Peabody Museum. Yale University, New Haven, CT. http://www.gbif.org/dataset/963f12d0-f762-11e1-a439-00145eb45e9a. Created on 03/13/2009. Accessed on 11/20/2015.

Author: Thayer, D.D., I.A. Pfingsten, V. Howard, J. Li., J. Redinger, and K.M Reaver

Revision Date: 8/14/2024

Citation Information:
Thayer, D.D., I.A. Pfingsten, V. Howard, J. Li., J. Redinger, and K.M Reaver, 2024, Pistia stratiotes L.: U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL, https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=1099, Revision Date: 8/14/2024, Access Date: 12/13/2024

This information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information has not received final approval by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and is provided on the condition that neither the USGS nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.

Disclaimer:

The data represented on this site vary in accuracy, scale, completeness, extent of coverage and origin. It is the user's responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations. We highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data.

Citation information: U.S. Geological Survey. [2024]. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database. Gainesville, Florida. Accessed [12/13/2024].

Contact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co-authorship if warranted.

For general information and questions about the database, contact Wesley Daniel. For problems and technical issues, contact Matthew Neilson.